George Washington
This article is the
first president of the United States. For other uses, see George
Washington (disambiguation).
|
George Washington |
|
|
|
|
|
In office |
|
|
John Adams |
|
|
Preceded by |
Office established |
|
Succeeded by |
|
|
In office |
|
|
President |
John Adams |
|
Preceded by |
|
|
Succeeded by |
|
|
In office |
|
|
Appointed by |
|
|
Preceded by |
Office established |
|
Succeeded by |
Henry Knox as
Senior Officer |
|
Delegate to the Continental Congress |
|
|
In office |
|
|
Preceded by |
Office established |
|
Succeeded by |
|
|
Constituency |
|
|
In office |
|
|
Preceded by |
Office established |
|
Succeeded by |
Office abolished |
|
Constituency |
|
|
Personal details |
|
|
Born |
February 22, 1732 |
|
Died |
December 14, 1799 (aged 67) |
|
Political party |
|
|
Spouse(s) |
Martha Dandridge (m. 1759) |
|
Parents |
|
|
Awards |
|
|
Signature |
|
|
Military service |
|
|
Allegiance |
|
|
Branch/service |
|
|
Years of service |
1752–58 (British Militia) |
|
Rank |
Colonel (British Army) |
|
Commands |
Virginia Colony's regiment |
|
Battles/wars |
show See battles |
|
Other offices held[show] |
|
|
||
|
·
Ancestry American Revolution ·
·
1787
Constitutional Convention President of the United States First term Second term Legacy ·
Legacy ·
Slavery ·
Papers ·
Library
|
||
|
·
v ·
t ·
e |
George Washington (February 22, 1732[b][c] – December 14,
1799) was an American political leader, military general, statesman, and Founding
Father, who also served as the first president of
the United States (1789–1797). Washington commanded Patriot forces
in the new nation's vital American
Revolutionary War, and led them to victory over the British.
Washington also presided at the Constitutional
Convention of 1787, which established the new federal
government. For his manifold leadership during the American Revolution,
he has been called the "Father of His Country".
Washington succeeded a
prosperous family of slave–holding planters in colonial Virginia.
He had educational opportunities and launched a favorable career as a surveyor.
He then became a leader of the Virginia militia in the French and Indian War.
During the Revolutionary War he was a delegate to the Continental Congress,
was unanimously appointed commander-in-chief of
the Army, and with
help from France, led an allied campaign which ended victoriously at the Siege of Yorktown. Once victory was in hand in
1783, he resigned as commander-in-chief.
Washington was
unanimously elected President by the Electoral
College in the first two national elections. He promoted and
oversaw implementation of a strong, well-financed national government, but
remained impartial in the fierce rivalry between subordinates Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton.
In the French Revolution,
Washington proclaimed a policy of neutrality while sanctioning the Jay Treaty. He set enduring precedents for the
office of president, including the title "President of the United States".
Washington's Farewell
Address was widely regarded as one of the most influential
statements on republicanism.
Washington owned, worked,
and traded African slaves, but became troubled with the institution, and freed
them by his 1799 will. He was a member of the Anglican Churchand the Freemasons, and urged tolerance for all
religions in his roles as general and President. Upon his death, he was
eulogized as "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his
countrymen." Washington has been memorialized by monuments, art, various
locales, stamps, and currency and he has been ranked by scholarsamong the four greatest
American presidents.
Contents
·
2Early military
career (1752–1758)
·
3Marriage,
civilian and political life (1759–1774)
·
5Revolutionary
War (1775–1783)
o 5.1Onset
o 5.3Quebec, Boston,
and Long Island
o 5.4Crossing the
Delaware, Trenton, and Princeton
o 5.5Brandywine,
Germantown, and Saratoga
o 5.6Valley Forge and
Monmouth
o 5.9Demobilization
and resignation
o 6.2Constitutional
Convention (1787)
o 6.3First
presidential election
o 7.1Cabinet and
executive departments
§ 7.2.2Jefferson–Hamilton
feud
o 10.2Religion and
Freemasonry
·
11Historical
reputation and legacy
Early years (1732–1752)
Further
information: Ancestry of
George Washington and British America
George Washington was
born on February 22, 1732 at Popes
Creek in Westmoreland
County, Virginia.[4] He was the first
child of Augustine and Mary Ball Washington,
Augustine's second wife.[5] Washington's
paternal family's origins were English gentry of Sulgrave.[6] His
great-grandfather John Washington settled
in Virginia in 1657, established Popes Creek tobacco plantation, and
accumulated land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence,
and his grandson Augustine. [7] Washington's
father, Augustine, was a Justice of the Peace and a prominent public figure who
had 10 children, 4 by his first marriage to Jane Butler, and 6 by Mary,
including Washington.[8]
Washington grew up in
Virginia's Tidewater region.[9] When he was three,
the family moved from Popes Creek plantation to the Epsewasson plantation on the Potomac River. Three years later, they
relocated to Ferry Farm near Fredericksburg.[10] On April 12, 1743
Augustine died, leaving Washington under the care of his mother Mary.[11] Washington
inherited Ferry Farm and ten slaves, while his older half-brother Lawrence inherited
Epsewasson and changed its name to Mount Vernon.[12]Washington's planned
study at England's Appleby Grammar
School was scrapped.[13] For two to three
years Washington received his formal education at the Fredericksburg school
of Anglican clergyman
James Mayre. [14][d]
Washington was strongly
influenced by his visits to his brother Lawrence at Mount Vernon, and Belvoir, William Fairfax's slave plantation.[16] Washington desired
to live the life of wealthy planter aristocracy. Fairfax observed promise in
the young Washington and became his patron and surrogate father.[17] In 1748, Fairfax
sent Washington with a surveying party to
survey Fairfax's Shenandoah property. [18]Washington, however,
abandoned the party, after a month of hardship, and returned home.[19]
In 1749, Washington
received a surveyor's license from the College of
William & Mary, and was appointed surveyor of Culpeper,
Virginia, with Fairfax's influence.[20]He made numerous surveys
of the Shenandoah Valley, primarily for Fairfax, and became accustomed to the
wilderness. In October 1750, Washington had bought almost 1,500 acres
(600 ha) in the Shenandoah Valley, when he resigned his Culpeper
commission. By 1752 he accumulated 2,315 acres (937 ha) in the Valley.[21]
In 1751, Washington made
his only trip abroad with Lawrence to Barbados, hoping the climate would be
beneficial to his brother's tuberculosis.[22] During the trip,
Washington contracted smallpox which
immunized him but left his face slightly scarred.[23]Lawrence's health
continued to decline and he died on July 26, 1752.[24] Washington
inherited his Mount Vernon estate in 1754 after the deaths of Lawrence's wife
and daughter.[25]
Early military career (1752–1758)
Major Washington in 1754
Washington's brother
Lawrence was an adjutant general at death, and this inspired Washington to
pursue his own military career.[26] He was initially
trained in musters and drills; subsequently the lieutenant governor of
Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie,
appointed him adjutant, first to the Southern district in December 1752 and
later to the Northern and Eastern districts as well.[27] In February 1753
Dindwiddie appointed Washington as district adjunct general at an annual salary
of £100, then promoted him to major, functioning as the British military envoy
to the French officials directing them to vacate the British claimed territory.
Thirty years later Washington reflected "that so young and inexperienced a
person should have been employed".[28]
The British government
had ordered Dinwiddie to guard British territorial claims in the Ohio Riverbasin, to secure trade activity with
the Indians and settlers.[29] In 1753 Dindwiddie
dispatched Washington to make peace with the Six Nations,
gain any intelligence they could offer, and to deliver a letter which requested
French commander Jacques
Legardeur de Saint-Pierre at Fort Le Boeuf, to vacate the Ohio Valley, and
offered him safe escort to Lake Erie.[30] Washington and six
frontiersmen reached the Ohio River that November, but the French had
withdrawn. He met with Half-King Tanacharison and other Iroquois chiefs
at Logstown, secured their promise of support
against the French, then continued to Venango to
meet the French who refused the letter. Washington then reached Fort Le Boeuf,
delivered the letter to the commander, and accepted his reply requesting that
Dinwiddie send his demand to the Major General of New France in Quebec.[31] By Dinwiddie's
order, Washington's diary of the expion was printed by William Hunter,
giving Washington name recognition in Virginia and England;[32] it also helped him
obtain a commission to raise a company of men.[33]
French
and Indian War
Main articles: French and Indian War, George
Washington in the French and Indian War, and Seven Years' War
In 1753, the French
military advanced into the Ohio Country, where both France and Britain
sought to expel the Indians. Dinwiddie and Washington were among stockholders
in Virginia's Ohio Company,
created for British settlement there in its landholdings. The land that joined
the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers [e] was prized by both
nations. The competing stakes led to the French and Indian War (1754–62),
beginning with a shot ordered by Washington, which also led to the Seven Years' War (1756–63).[34]
Lt. Col. Washington
holding night council at Fort Necessity
On October 31, 1753,
Governor Dinwiddie commissioned Washington (lieutenant colonel in the newly
formed Virginia Regiment)
to peaceably confront French forces at the Ohio forks, or capture or kill those resisting
British control of the region.[35] By April 2
Washington set out with 150 men, with news the French had ejected colonial
traders and begun construction of Fort Duquesne. Half-King Tanacharison
discovered a detachment of French troops east of Uniontown,
Pennsylvania, led by Joseph Coulon
de Jumonville, so Washington built an entrenched camp at Great
Meadows, called Fort
Necessity. He then led his unit and Mingo (Iroquois)
allies in an ambush against the French on May 28 in the brief Battle of
Jumonville Glen.[32] Jumonville was
killed, and most of his party taken prisoner or killed; Tanacharison therefore
labeled Washington Conotocaurius ("Town
Destroyer").[36]
In July 1754, the French
responded by attacking the fort in the ten-hour Battle of Fort
Necessity, which ended in Washington's surrender. The drafted
surrender document was translated to falsely state that Washington had specifically
"assassinated" Jumonville; this became the pretext to blame him for
starting a war.[37] Joseph Ellis concludes the episode
demonstrated Washington's bravery and initiative, as well as his inexperience
and impetuosity.[38] However, Washington
was blamed for the defeat and was replaced by colonel James
Innes. Upon his return to Virginia, Washington refused to accept a
demotion to the rank of captain and resigned his commission.[39] The outcome, and
Washington's part in it, drew international attention—the French alleged that
the assassinated Jumonville had merely been there to warn Washington about
encroaching on French-claimed territory.[40] France and Great
Britain then began to fight for control of Ohio Country by sending in troops
and declaring war in 1756.[41]
Washington the Soldier
Painting
of Lt. Col. Washington on horseback during the Battle of the Monongahela
— Reǵnier, 1834
In 1755, the British
Crown sent its largest expion to
the colonies, led by General Edward Braddock and regulars, to take Fort Duquesne and expel the
French from the Ohio Country.[42] Braddock offered
Washington a position on his staff, and he accepted.[43] Washington
recommended that Braddock split the army into two divisions, with a primary
column and a second, lightly equipped "flying column".[44] During the march,
Washington became severely ill and was left behind; he rejoined Braddock at
Monongahela. The next day, the French and their Indian allies ambushed
Braddock's divided forces, and Braddock was mortally wounded in the Battle of the
Monongahela.[44] The British
suffered devastating casualties and retreated with two-thirds killed or
wounded, but Washington rallied his forces in an organized retreat while
suffering from a fever and headache.[45] He had two horses
shot from under him, and his hat and coat were bullet-pierced.[43] His conduct under
fire redeemed his reputation among critics of his command in the Battle of Fort
Necessity,[46] but he was not
included by the succeeding commander Colonel Thomas Dunbar in planning
subsequent operations.[45]
In August 1755, Dinwiddie
appointed Washington colonel and commander-in-chief of the Virginia Regiment, to defend 300 miles
(480 km) of frontier from Indian attacks, with only 300 men.[47] There were 20
battles in 10 months.[48] Washington was
convinced that Braddock would have recommended him for a regular commission in
the British Army had he survived, so he appealed to Braddock's successor Lord
Loudoun.[49] Loudoun refused the
request but agreed to transfer responsibility for Fort Cumberlandfrom
Virginia to Maryland.[49] Washington's
command increased to a thousand soldiers; he emphasized discipline and
training, and Virginia's frontier population suffered less than that of other
colonies as a result, and was considered Washington's "only unqualified
success" during this war.[50]
Starting in 1756, the
North American conflict spread to Europe, known as the Seven Years' War.[51] Washington
continued to advocate the capture of Fort Duquesne,[52] and the British
crown sent Commanding General John
Forbes, Colonel Thomas Gage, and British regulars to take the
post in 1758.[52] Washington was
promoted to honorary brigadier
general and his two regiments were ordered to cooperate.[53] Washington
commanded the First Virginia regiment and was assigned to Forbes functioning as
a line officer.[f] A dispute over
command arose but was finally settled when it was decided that colonial
officers could only be commanded by their regular commanders, which was
satisfactory to Washington, although he continued his effort for a regular
commission. He was the only colonial officer among the British forces and was
involved in only one battle during the campaign.[55]
During the Forbes Expion, Washington's suggestion to
employ Indian-style warfare was ignored.[56] Washington
disagreed with Forbes' plan to cut an entirely new western road, starting in
Pennsylvania, rather than improve on Braddock's old road.[57]
Pursuant to Forbes’
assault plan on the fort, Washington lead one of three brigades, was alerted to
enemy reconnaissance in the area, and sent Colonel George
Mercer with several hundred Virginians to investigate. Gunshots
were heard in the distance, Washington's unit responded, and friendly fire
resulted when reinforcements arrived; minor casualties resulted.[58]
Washington became
honorary brigadier general, leading a final 2,500-man assault. His army arrived
November 25 to find Fort Duquesne abandoned and burned by the French.[59] The British had won
a strategic victory by gaining control of the Ohio Valley, but Washington retired from his
Virginia Regiment commission in December 1758 and returned to Mount Vernon. The
French and Indian War was finally concluded by two treaties in 1763: North American
Theater and European Theater.[60] Although Washington
did not obtain a regular commission in the British Army, he gained valued
knowledge of British fighting tactics, "a lasting reservoir of
self-confidence," leadership skills, and most of all, he became a believer
of a strong central government.[61] During this era,
however, Washington also gained first hand experience of the destructive
competition and infighting among shortsighted colonial politicians that would
recur among Patriot governments in the American Revolution.[62]
Marriage, civilian and political life
(1759–1774)
Colonel
George Washington, by Charles Willson Peale,
1772
At age 27, Washington
married Martha Dandridge Custis,
the 28-year-old wealthy widow of Daniel Parke Custis.
Martha was intelligent and gracious, and experienced in managing a planter's
estate, and they effected an agreeable marriage.[63] They raised John Parke Custis and Martha Parke
(Patsy) Custis, children from her previous marriage, and later their
grandchildren Eleanor Parke
Custis and George
Washington Parke Custis. Washington's 1751 bout with smallpox is
thought to have rendered him sterile, and they lamented they had no children
together.[64] They moved to Mount
Vernon, near Alexandria,
where he took up life as a planter of tobacco and wheat and emerged as a
political figure.[65]
The marriage gave
Washington control over Martha's one-third dower interest
in the 18,000-acre (7,300 ha) Custis estate,
worth £40,000 (equivalent to $10 million in 2018), and he managed
the remaining two-thirds for Martha's children; he also acquired 84 slaves
through the marriage. He became one of Virginia's wealthiest men and thus
increased his social standing.[66]
At Washington's urging,
Governor Lord
Botetourt fulfilled Dinwiddie's 1754 promise of land bounties
to all volunteer militia during the French and Indian War.[67] In late 1770,
Washington inspected the lands in the Ohio and Great Kanawha regions, and engaged
surveyor William Crawford who
allotted to Washington 23,200 acres (9,400 ha) of the best acreage.
Washington told the veterans their land was hilly and unsuitable for farming,
and agreed to purchase 20,147 acres (8,153 ha); many were happy with the
sale, but others felt they had been duped.[68][69] He also doubled the
size of Mount Vernon to 6,500 acres (2,600 ha) and increased its slave
population to more than 100 by 1775.[70]
As a respected military
hero and large landowner, he held local office and was elected to the Virginia
provincial legislature, representing Frederick County in the House of Burgesses for
seven years beginning in 1758.[70] In the election
that year, he plied the voters with beer, brandy and other beverages — even
though he was absent while serving on the Forbes Expion.[71] He won election
with roughly 40 percent of the vote, defeating three other candidates with the
help of several local elites. He rarely spoke in his early legislative career,
but he became a prominent critic of Britain's taxation and mercantilist
policies in the 1760s.[72]
Martha Washington
based
on a 1757 portrait by John Wollaston
Washington was an
aristocrat and his activities including fox hunting, fishing, dances and parties,
theater, races, and cockfights. He also
played cards, backgammon, and billiards.[73] By occupation
Washington was a planter.[74] He imported
luxuries and other goods from England and paid for them by tobacco exports. In
1764, when a poor tobacco market left him £1,800 in debt, he diversified,
concentrated on finances, and reduced imported luxuries.[75] He changed Mount
Vernon's primary cash crop from tobacco to wheat, and further diversified
operations to include flour milling,
fishing, horse breeding, hog production, spinning, and weaving.[76] In the 1790s, he
erected a distillery for
substantial whiskey production.[77]
Washington's
step-daughter Patsy Custis suffered from epileptic attacks from age 12, and she
died in his arms in 1773. The following day, he wrote to Burwell Bassett: "It is easier to
conceive, than to describe, the distress of this Family...."[78] He canceled all
business activity and remained with Martha every night for three months.[79] His half of Patsy's
inheritance allowed him to pay off British crors.[80]
Washington soon was
counted among the political and social elite in Virginia. From 1768 to 1775, he
invited some 2,000 guests to his Mount Vernon estate, mostly those whom he
considered "people of rank". His advice regarding people who were not
of high social status was to "treat them civilly" but "keep them
at a proper distance, for they will grow upon familiarity, in proportion as you
sink in authority".[81] He became more
politically active in 1769, presenting legislation in the Virginia Assembly to
establish an embargo on goods from Great Britain.[82]
American Revolution
Main article: George
Washington in the American Revolution
Washington played a
central role before and during the American Revolution.
A prideful man, Washington's disdain for the British military had begun when he
was humiliatingly passed over for promotion into the Regular Army. He was
opposed to the continuing taxes imposed by the British Parliament on the
Colonies, without proper
representation.[83] He and other
colonists were also angered by a Royal
Proclamation in 1763 banning American settlement west of
the Allegheny Mountains,
and protecting the British fur trade.[g][85] He believed
the Stamp Act of
1765 was an "Act of Oppression", and celebrated with fellow colonists
its repeal the following year.[h][87] In March 1766,
Parliament passed the Declaratory Act, asserting that Parliamentary
law superseded colonial law.[88] Washington helped
to lead widespread protests against the Townshend Acts passed by Parliament in
1767, and he introduced a proposal in May 1769 drafted by George Mason that called for Virginia to
boycott English goods until the Acts were repealed in 1770.[89]
Parliament sought to
punish Massachusetts colonists for their role in the Boston Tea Party in 1774 with passage of
the Intolerable Acts,
which Washington referred to as "an Invasion of our Rights and Privileges".[90] He said that
Americans must not submit to acts of tyranny since "custom and use shall
make us as tame and abject slaves, as the blacks we rule over with such
arbitrary sway".[91] That July, George
Mason and Washington drafted a list of resolutions for the Fairfax County committee,
chaired by Washington, which adopted the Fairfax Resolves, calling for a Continental
Congress.[92] On August 1, he
attended the First Virginia
Convention where he was selected as a delegate to the First
Continental Congress.[93]
Revolutionary War (1775–1783)
Further
information: Military
career of George Washington
General Washington
Commander of the Continental Army
Onset
The Revolutionary
War began on April 19, 1775, with the battles of Lexington
and Concord, and the siege Boston.[94] The conflict was
divided into two factions, Patriots who
rejected British rule, and Loyalists to
the British King, protected by the British Army and Navy.[95]The North American
British commander at the outbreak of war was Thomas Gage.[96]Upon hearing the shocking
news of the onset of war, Washington was "sobered and dismayed."[97] On May 4, 1775,
Washington quickly left Mount Vernon by his chariot to join the Continental
Congress in Philadelphia.[98]
Commander
in chief
On June 14, 1775, Congress created
the Continental Army,
and Washington was nominated commander in chief by Samuel Adams and John Adams. Washington, chosen over John
Hancock, was selected for his military experience and the belief a Virginian
would unite the colonies. Washington was considered an incisive leader who kept
his "ambition in check."[99] On June 15,
Washington was unanimously elected commander in chief by Congress.[100]
On June 16, Washington
appeared before Congress in uniform and gave an acceptance speech, declining a
salary, though he was later reimbursed expenses. Commissioned on June 19,
Washington was roundly praised by Congressional delegates. [101]Congress chose his
primary officer staff, including Major General Artemas Ward, Adjutant General Horatio Gates, Major General Charles Lee,
Major General Philip Schuyler,
Major General Nathanael Greene,
Colonel Henry Knox, and
Colonel Alexander Hamilton.[102] Washington was
impressed by Colonel Benedict Arnold and gave him
responsibility for invading Canada. He also engaged French and Indian War
compatriot Brigadier General Daniel Morgan. Henry Knox, who also impressed
Adams with ordnance knowledge, was promoted to colonel and chief of artillery
by Washington.[103]
Anticipating what awaited
them, Washington and his party headed to Boston to engage the British for the
first time. In the process he was becoming an embodiment of the revolution as
he was greeted by local officials and statesmen along the way, some addressing
him as "your excellency". Historian Garry Wills noted, "before there was
a nation—before there was any symbol of that nation (a flag, a Constitution, a
national seal)—there was Washington."[104]
On July 2, 1775,
Washington inspected the new army at Cambridge,
Massachusetts, only to find soldiers who were undisciplined, badly
outfitted and unsheltered.[105] He consulted with Benjamin Franklin and initiated his
suggested reforms by drilling soldiers and imposing strict discipline,
including fines, floggings, and incarceration.[106] As ordered, his
officer staff scrutinized military manuals and the individual skills of
recruits to insure military effectiveness.[107] He removed cowardly
or incompetent officers, and demanded respect for civilians. All of this, he
told Congress, was a "most necessary Work".[108] On August 23,
King George III proclaimed
that rebellious American colonists were traitors to the Crown.[109]
Quebec,
Boston, and Long Island
Main articles: Invasion of
Quebec (1775), Siege of Boston, and Battle of Long Island
Washington
at Dorchester Heights, Gilbert Stuart (1806)
In September 1775,
Washington sent Benedict Arnold and
1,000 troops to British-held Quebec to support General Richard Montgomery's
siege and to secure the northern flank.[110] The British
outnumbered the American siege, which collapsed, forcing the Continental Army
to make a hasty retreat.[111] Later that month
Washington called a war council, proposing an attack on the besieged British
Army in Boston, but his generals declined, to prevent high casualties in
attacking an entrenched enemy.[112] Fortunately, the
British commander at Boston, General William
Howe, who had replaced Gage, did not attack the burgeoning
Continental Army.[113]
In late 1775, Washington
sent staff officer Henry Knox to
the recently
captured Fort Ticonderoga for gunpowder and cannons. By
January, with expiring enlistments exceeding recruits, the army dropped to
half, at 9,600 men, and was supplemented with previous war militia.[114]
In February 1776, Knox
returned with the cannons, and per Washington's order they were transported at
night to Dorchester
Heights. The next morning, Howe discovered Boston was under siege by
Washington's army, and his fleet was vulnerable to Patriot cannon fire. Fearing
high casualties from a direct assault, Howe opted to withdraw. Howe evacuated
Boston with 10,000 troops and 1,100 Loyalists, and the Patriots reclaimed the
city. Washington then marched his army to New York,
initiated fortification, and correctly predicted that the British would return
and attack in full force.[115][i]
Washington prepared for
an attack on New York City and tensions mounted; a plot (the
precise nature of which is unknown) to assassinate or capture Washington failed[117] and his personal
guard Thomas Hickey was
hanged for mutiny and sion, and may have played a role in the assassination
plot.[118] Howe resupplied
in Nova Scotia and headed with the British
naval fleet for the city, considered the key to securing the continent. George
Germain, Secretary for the American Colonies, who ran the British
war effort from England, believed the war could be won with one "decisive
blow."[119] The British forces
included over 100 ships and thousands of troops.[120] Howe's army landed
unopposed on Staten Island on
July 2 for a siege of the city as additional British ships and troops continued
to arrive.[121] The Declaration
of Independence from Great Britain was adopted on July 4, 1776;
on July 9, the Patriots toppled
an equestrian statue of King
George III in New York City, melting it down to manufacture
40,000 bullets to shoot at British troops.[122] In his general
orders, on July 9, Washington informed his troops that Congress had declared
the united colonies were "free and independent states." [123]
Howe's troop strength
totaled 32,000 regulars, including 8,000 Hessians; Washington's troop strength
consisted of 23,000, 19,000 of whom were raw recruits and militia.[124] On August 22, Howe
landed 20,000 troops at Gravesend, Brooklyn,
and approached Washington's fortifications. Washington overruled his generals
and chose to fight, based on false information that Howe's army had only 8,000
to 9,000 troops.[125] Howe assaulted
Washington's flank on August 27 and inflicted 1,500 Patriot
casualties; the British suffered 400 casualties.[126] Washington and his
generals decided to retreat, and Washington instructed General William Heath to make available every
flat-bottomed riverboat and sloop in the area.
General William
Alexander held off the British army and covered the retreat,
and the army safely crossed the East River under the cover of darkness
to Manhattan Island without
loss of life or material—although the British did capture General Alexander.[127]
Battle of Long Island
Alonzo Chappel (1858)
Howe was emboldened by
his victory at Long Island and sent a dispatch addressed to "George
Washington, Esq." attempting to negotiate peace. Washington declined the
overture and demanded that he be addressed as a general and recognized as a
fellow belligerent, not as a "rebel". He was concerned that his men
would be hanged as rebels if they were captured, and he believed it his duty to
insist that his men and the newly established United States be recognized with
proper diplomatic protocol. The attempts at negotiation failed.[128]
The British navy
bombarded unstable earthworks built by the Patriots on lower Manhattan Island.[129] Washington
initially considered abandoning the island, including Fort Washington,
but heeded the advice of Generals Greene and Israel Putnam to defend the fort. When
they were unable to hold it, Washington abandoned it despite General Charles Lee's
objections, and his army retired north to White Plains.[130] Howe pursued, and
Washington was forced to retreat across the Hudson River to Fort Lee to
avoid encirclement. Howe took the offensive; he landed his troops on the island
on November 16, surrounded and captured Fort
Washington, and inflicted high casualties on the Americans.
Washington was responsible for the decision to delay the retreat, but he also
faulted the Congress and Nathanael Greene. Loyalists in New York
considered Howe a liberator and spread a rumor that Washington had set fire to
the city.[131] The morale in the
Patriot army was at its lowest ebb, as British Cornet Banastre Tarleton captured General Lee
while he took a detour to visit his mistress Mary White.[132]
Crossing
the Delaware, Trenton, and Princeton
Main articles: George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River, Battle of Trenton, and Battle of Princeton
Washington Crossing the Delaware, December 25,
1776,
Emanuel Leutze (1851)[j]
Washington's army,
reduced to 5,400 troops, retreated through New Jersey,
as Howe broke off pursuit December 14, delayed his advance on Philadelphia, and
set up winter quarters in New York.[134] Washington crossed
the Delaware River into
Pennsylvania, where Lee's replacement John Sullivan and
2,000 troops joined him.[135] The future of the
Continental Army was in doubt for lack of supplies, a harsh winter, expiring
enlistments, and desertions. Washington was disappointed that many New Jersey
residents were Loyalists or skeptical the prospect of independence.[136] Howe had split up
his British Army and posted a Hessiangarrison at Trenton, to
hold western New Jersey and the east shore of the Delaware.[137]
Howe's army showed some
complacency and Washington met with his generals on Christmas Eve to devise a
surprise attack on the Hessian garrison at Trenton.[138] Code named "Victory or Death",
the plan was for the army to make separate crossings of the Delaware in three
divisions, one led by Washington (2,400 troops), another by General James Ewing (700),
and the third by Colonel John Cadwalader (1,500),
all reaching the Hessians at Trenton. Washington's force would then be split,
with him taking the Pennington Road,
and General Sullivan traveling south on the river's edge.[139] Washington first
ordered a 60-mile search for barges to transport his army, particularly Durham boats, and ordered the destruction of
vessels that could be used by the British.[140]
Washington initially
crossed the Delaware at sunset Christmas Day and, risking capture, staked out
the Jersey shoreline. His men followed across the ice-obstructed river in sleet
and snow at McKonkey's Ferry,
with 40 men per vessel. Wind churned up the waters, and they were pelted with
hail.[141] They made it
across, without losing a man, at 3:00 A.M.. Henry Knox had been delayed, managing
frightened horses and 18 field guns on flat-bottomed ferries. Cadwalader
and Ewing failed to cross due to the ice and heavy currents. While he awaited
them, Washington grew doubtful of his planned attack on Trenton. Once Knox made
it, Washington proceeded to Trenton an hour later.[142] Rather than return
his army to Pennsylvania and risk being spotted, Washington chose to take his
troops alone against the Hessians.[143]
Hessian positions were
spotted a mile from Trenton, so Washington, after consulting with his officers,
split his force into two columns with words of encouragement to his men:
"Soldiers keep by your officers. For God's sake, keep by your officers."
The two columns were separated at the Birmingham crossroads, with General Nathanael Greene's force, led by Washington,
taking the upper Ferry Road, while General John Sullivan's advanced
on River Road. (See map.)[144] Veiled by sleet and
snowfall, the Americans proceeded toward Trenton; many soldiers were shoeless,
with bloodied feet, and two died of exposure. At sunrise, they made a
coordinated surprise attack on the Hessians, with Washington leading the
charge, aided by Major General Henry Knox and artillery. Hessian
Colonel Johann Rall was
mortally wounded during the short battle.[145]
The
Capture of the Hessians at Trenton, December 26, 1776
John Trumbull
The Hessians had 22 killed,
83 wounded, with 850 captured with many supplies. After retreating across the
Delaware to Pennsylvania,[146] Washington returned
to New Jersey on January 3, launching an attack on
British regulars at Princeton,
with 40 Americans killed or wounded versus British losses of 273 killed or
captured.[147] American
Generals Hugh Mercer and
John Cadwalader were being driven back by the British when Mercer was mortally
wounded, then Washington arrived and led the men in a counterattack which
advanced to within 30 yards (27 m) of the British line.[148]
The remaining British
troops retreated after a brief stand, while others took refuge in Nassau Hall. Colonel Alexander Hamilton brought
three cannons and began firing at the hall. Washington's troops charged, and in
less than an hour the British put out the white flag of ceasefire; 194 soldiers laid
down their arms.[149] Howe retreated to
New York City where his army remained inactive until early the next year.[150] Washington's
depleted Continental Army took up winter headquarters in Morristown,
New Jersey, while disrupting British supply lines and expelling them from parts
of New Jersey. Washington later said the British could have successfully
counter-attacked his encampment before his troops were dug in.[151]
The British still
controlled New York, and after the harsh winter campaign, many Patriot soldiers
did not reenlist, or had deserted. Increased rewards for re-enlisting and
punishments for desertion were instituted, in an effort to effect greater troop
numbers.[152]Strategically,
Washington's victories were pivotal for the Revolution and quashed the British
strategy of showing overwhelming force followed by offering generous terms.[150][153] In February 1777
word of American victories at Trenton and Princeton reached London, and brought with it the realization
that the Patriots were in a position to demand unconditional independence.[154] That month while
encamped at Morristown,
New Jersey, Washington determined smallpox inoculation could prevent deaths
from the disease, and employed it for the army to great effect.[155]
Brandywine,
Germantown, and Saratoga
Main articles: Battle of Brandywine, Battle of Germantown,
and Battle of Saratoga
In July, 1777, British
General John Burgoyne led
the Saratoga campaign south
from Quebec, through Lake Champlain and recaptured
Fort Ticonderoga with the objective of dividing New England, including control of the Hudson River. But General Howe in
British-occupied New York blundered, taking his army south to Philadelphia
rather than up the Hudson River to join Burgoyne near Albany .[156] Meanwhile,
Washington and Lafayette rushed to Philadelphia to engage Howe and were shocked
to learn of Burgoyne's progress in upstate New York, where the Patriots were
led by General Philip Schuyler and
successor Horatio Gates.
Washington's army of less experienced men were defeated in the pitched battles at
Philadelphia.[157]
Howe outmaneuvered
Washington at the Battle of Brandywine on
September 11, 1777, and marched unopposed into the nation's capital at
Philadelphia. An October Patriot attack on
the British at Germantown failed.
Because of the losses incurred at Philadelphia, Major General Thomas Conway prompted some members of
Congress, referred to as the Conway Cabal, to consider removing Washington
from command. Washington's supporters resisted and after much deliberation the
matter was dropped.[158]Once exposed, Conway later
wrote an apology to Washington, resigned, and returned to France.[159]
During the Saratoga campaign
to the north, Washington was concerned with Howe's movements and also aware
that Burgoyne was moving south toward Saratoga from Quebec. Washington took
some risks to support Gates’ army, sending reinforcements north with
Generals Benedict Arnold,
his most aggressive field commander, and Benjamin Lincoln. On October 7, 1777, Burgoyne
tried to take Bemis Heights,
but was isolated from support by Howe. He was forced to retreat to Saratoga and
ultimately surrendered after the Battles of Saratoga.
As Washington suspected, Gates's victory emboldened his critics.[160] 20th-century
biographer John Alden maintains, "It was inevitable that the defeats of
Washington's forces and the concurrent victory of the forces in upper New York
should be compared." The admiration for Washington was waning, including
little cr from John Adams.[161]British commander Howe
resigned in May 1778, left America forever, and was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton.[162]
Valley
Forge and Monmouth
Main articles: Valley Forge and Battle of Monmouth
Washington
and Lafayette
Valley Forge
Washington's army of
11,000 went into winter quarters at Valley Forge north of Philadelphia in
December 1777. They suffered 2,000–3,000 deaths in extreme cold over six
months, mostly from disease, lack of food, clothing, and shelter.[163] Meanwhile, the
British were comfortably quartered in Philadelphia, paying for supplies
in pounds sterling,
while Washington struggled with a devalued American paper
currency. The woodlands were soon exhausted of game, and by February
morale and increased desertions ensued.[164]
Washington's repeated
petitions to the Continental Congress for provisions were futile. He received a
congressional delegation to check the Army's conditions, and expressed the
urgency of the situation, proclaiming: "Something must be done. Important
alterations must be made." He recommended that Congress expe supplies
and Congress agreed to strengthen and fund the army's supply lines by
reorganizing the commissary department. By late February, there were adequate
supplies arriving at the camp.[116]
Washington
Rallying the Troops at Monmouth, Emanuel Leutze (1851–1854)
Baron Friedrich
Wilhelm von Steuben’s incessant drilling soon transformed
Washington’s recruits into a disciplined fighting force.[165] The revitalized
army emerged from Valley Forge early the following year.[166] Von Steuben was
promoted to Major General and became Washington's chief of staff.[167]
In early 1778, the French
responded to Burgoyne's defeat and entered into a Treaty of
Alliance with the Americans. In May, 1778, the Continental
Congress ratified the treaty, that officially amounted to a French declaration
of war against Britain, which in effect created a world war.[168] The British
evacuated Philadelphia for New York that June, and Washington summoned a war
council of American and French Generals. He chose a partial attack on the
retreating British at the Battle of Monmouth;
the British were commanded by Howe's successor, General Henry Clinton. Generals Charles Lee and
Lafayette moved with 4,000 men, without Washington's knowledge, and bungled
their first attack on June 28. Washington relieved Lee and achieved a draw
after an expansive battle. At nightfall, the British continued their retreat to
New York, and Washington moved his army outside the city.[169] Monmouth was
Washington’s last battle in the North; he prioritized the safety of his army
over that of towns with little value to the British.[170]
West
Point espionage
Main articles: West Point and Military
career of Benedict Arnold, 1777–79
Washington became
"America's first spymaster", for his
successful design of an espionage system against the British.[171] In 1778,
Major Benjamin Tallmadge therefore
formed the Culper Ring, to
covertly collect information the British in New York.[172] A vigilant
Washington had disregarded incidents of disloyalty by Benedict Arnold who had distinguished
himself in many battles.[173]
During mid-1780, Arnold
began supplying British spymaster John André with sensitive information
intended to compromise Washington and capture West Point,
a key American defensive position on the Hudson River.[174] Arnold repeatedly
asked for command of West Point, and Washington finally agreed in August.[175] Arnold met André on
September 21, giving him plans to take over the garrison. Arnold was variously
motivated, by a £6,000 British payment, as well as his anger at being passed
over and at personal Congressional slights.[176] He was deeply in
debt, profiteering,
and facing a court-martial.[177]
Militia forces captured
André and discovered the plans but Arnold escaped to New York.[178] An outraged
Washington recalled the commanders positioned under Arnold at key points around
the fort to prevent this complicity, but did not suspect Arnold's wife Peggy Shippen.[179] Washington assumed
personal command and reorganized West Point.[180]
André's trial for
espionage ended in a death sentence, and Washington offered to return him to
the British in exchange for Arnold, but Clinton refused. André was hanged on October 2, 1780
despite his request to face a firing squad, to deter other spies.[181]
Yorktown
victory
Main articles: Sullivan Expion, Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War,
and Siege of Yorktown
Siege of Yorktown, Generals Washington
and Rochambeau give
last orders before the attack
In late 1778, General
Clinton shipped 3,000 troops from New York to Georgia and launched a Southern
invasion against Savannah,
reinforced by 2,000 British and Loyalist troops. They repelled an attack by
Patriots and French naval forces, which bolstered the British war effort.[182]
In mid-1779, Washington
attacked Iroquois warriors of the Six Nations in
order to force Britain's Indian allies out of New York, from which they had
assaulted New England settlements.[183] The Indian warriors
joined with Tory rangers led by Walter Butler and
viciously slew more than 200 frontiersmen in June, laying waste to the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania.[184] In response,
Washington ordered General John Sullivan to lead an expion to
effect "the total destruction and devastation" of Iroquois villages
and take their women and children hostage. Those who managed to escape fled to
Canada.[185]Sullivan's report of
mission accomplished referred to the Iroquois as "inhuman
barbarians".[186]
Washington's troops went
into quarters at Morristown, New Jersey during the harsh winter of 1779—1780
and suffered their worst during the war, with temperatures well below
freezing. New York Harbor was
frozen over, snow and ice covered the ground for weeks, and the troops again
lacked provisions.[187]
French
King Louis XVIallied with Washington and Patriot
American colonists
Clinton assembled 12,500
troops and attacked Charlestown (modern
Charleston) in January 1780, defeating General Benjamin Lincoln, who only had 5,100
Continental troops.[188] The British went on
to occupy the South Carolina Piedmont in
June, with no Patriot resistance.[188] Clinton returned to
New York and left 8,000 troops commanded by General Charles
Cornwallis.[189] Congress replaced
Lincoln with Horatio Gates, who failed in South Carolina and was replaced by
Washington's choice Greene; but the British had the South in their grasp.
Washington was reinvigorated when upon learning in mid 1780 that Lafayette had
returned from France with more ships, men, and supplies.[190]
In July 1780, 5,000
veteran French troops led by Marshal Rochambeau, arrived at New Port, Rhode Island.[191] French naval forces
then landed, led by Admiral Grasse,
and Washington encouraged Rochambeau to move his fleet south to launch a joint
land–naval attack on Arnold's troops.[192]
Washington's army went
into winter quarters at New Windsor,
New York, in December 1780, where they again suffered and Washington urged
Congress and state officials to expe provisions. He sympathetically said he
hoped the army would not "continue to struggle under the same difficulties
they have hitherto endured".[193] On March 1, 1781
Congress ratified the Articles of
Confederation, but the new government, that took effect on March 2,
did not have the power to levy taxes, and loosely held the states together.[194]
General Clinton sent
Arnold, now a British Brigadier General, to Virginia with 1,700 troops to
capture Portsmouth and
from there spread terror; Washington responded, sending Lafayette south to
counter Arnold's efforts.[195] Washington
initially hoped to bring the fight to New York, drawing off British forces from
Virginia and ending the war there, but Rochambeau advised Grasse that Cornwallis in
Virginia was the better target. Grasse's fleet arrived off the Virginia coast.
Washington saw the advantage, and feintedtowards
Clinton in New York before heading south to Virginia.[196]
After the French won a
naval victory in the Battle of the
Chesapeake, Patriot forces trapped the British army in Virginia
without reinforcement by Clinton from the North.[197] The surrender at Yorktown on October 19, 1781
marked the end of major fighting.[198]Washington took great
satisfaction but kept his taciturn composure.[199] Cornwallis,
claiming illness, failed to appear at the ceremony of surrender, sending
General Charles O'Hara as
his proxy; Washington then had General Benjamin Lincoln accept the surrender.[200] In 1782, British
commander Clinton was replaced by Sir Guy
Carleton.
Demobilization
and resignation
General George Washington Resigning His Commission
John Trumbull, 1824
As peace negotiations
started, the British gradually evacuated troops from Savannah, Charlestown, and
New York by 1783, and the French army and navy likewise departed.[201]The American treasury was
empty, unpaid and mutinous soldiers forced adjournment of the Congress, and
Washington dispelled unrest by suppressing the Newburgh Conspiracyin
March 1783; Congress promised officers a five-year bonus.[202] Washington
submitted an account of $450,000 in expenses he advanced to the army
(equivalent to $10 million in 2018). The account was settled, though it was
allegedly vague large sums, and included his wife Martha's expenses
incurred through visits to his headquarters, as well as his agreed
compensation.[203]
Washington's resignation
as Commander in Chief followed the Treaty of Paris,
and he planned to retire to Mount Vernon. With the treaty ratified in April
1783, Hamilton’s
Congressional committee adapted the army for peacetime. Washington learned of
the treaty two months later,[204] and gave the Army's
perspective to the Committee in his Sentiments on a Peace Establishment.[205] The Committee's
proposals were defeated by Congress on three occasions.[206] The Treaty was
signed on September 3, 1783, and Great Britain officially recognized the
independence of the United States. Washington disbanded his army, giving an
eloquent farewell address to his soldiers on November 2.[207] On November 25,
the British evacuated
New York City, and Washington and Governor George
Clinton took possession. Only a few trusted delegates of the
Continental Congress, including Thomas Jefferson, knew of Washington's
decision to resign his commission.[208]
Washington advised
Congress in August 1783 to keep a standing army, create a "national militia" of separate state units, and
establish a navy and a national military academy. He circulated his
"Farewell" orders that discharged his troops, whom he called
"one patriotic band of brothers".
Before his return to Mount Vernon, he oversaw the evacuation of British forces
in New York and was greeted by parades and celebrations, where he announced
that Knox had been promoted commander-in-chief.[209]
After leading the
Continental Army for eight and a half years, Washington bade farewell to his
officers at Fraunces Tavern in
December 1783, and resigned his commission days later, refuting Loyalist claims
he would not relinquish his military command.[210]In a final appearance in
uniform, he gave a statement to the Congress: "I consider it an
indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official life, by commending the
interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, and those
who have the superintendence of them, to his holy keeping."[211] Washington's
resignation was acclaimed at home and abroad and designed to show a skeptical
world that the new republic would not degenerate into chaos.[212][k] The same month,
Washington was appointed president general of the Society of the
Cincinnati, a herary fraternity, and served for remainder of his
life.[214][l]
Early republic (1784–1789)
Further
information: Confederation Period and Articles of
Confederation
Return
to Mount Vernon
Shortly after Washington
resigned his commission, he returned to Mount Vernon on a snowy Christmas Eve,
older at age 52, and relieved of his burdens while he was military commander.
In a letter to his close friend, Lafayette, he expressed this sentiment.[216]
I
am not only retired from all public employments but I am retiring within
myself, and shall be able to view the solitary walk and tread the paths of
private life with heartfelt satisfaction. ... I will move gently down the
stream of life, until I sleep with my fathers.[217]
Though Washington was
eager to retire from military life, he could not at first relax in stillness,
and gave much thought to the affairs of his estate and other personal matters.[218] In February 1784,
Washington visited his aged and ill mother at Fredricksburg, much to popular
acclaim.[219] During this time
Washington became an American celebrity and was visited by many people,
however, his health had deteriorated somewhat from lack of general activity.[220][m]
Washington found Mount
Vernon severely neglected, while his debtors paid him in deflated American
currency.[222] In September 1784,
strapped for cash, Washington returned to the western frontier to inspect his
land holdings, and to collect his lost rents.[223]On Washington's rugged
journey, he crossed the Appalachian Mountains,
roughing it, sleeping outside in the rain. Washington noted his own personal
fatigue in his diaries. [224] Urged by Jefferson,
Washington, who was president of the Potomac Company, revived his project to link
the Potomac River to the Ohio River by canal, but the project proved
unprofitable and was never completed.[225]
Reaching Berkeley
Springs, Washington endorsed James Rumsey's invention of a mechanical steamboat that could travel
upstream. [226] On October 4,
Washington returned to Mount Vernon, completed his 680-mile journey, while he
obtained a better understanding on how to develop the Ohio Country.[227]
Shays' Rebellion confirmed for Washington
the need to overhaul the Articles of Confederation.
Washington was convinced
that the Articles of
Confederation, ratified earlier in 1781, was a weak foundation for
the country, and that the independent states needed to unify under a strong
central government.[228] He believed the
nation was on the verge of "anarchy and confusion," and that his
retirement would be cut short.[229] On August 29,
1786 Shays' Rebellion started
in Massachusetts over taxation and property ownership, further convincing
Washington that a national constitution was needed.[230] On September 11,
1786, nationalists, who feared the new republic had descended into lawlessness, met together at Annapolis and
requested that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. One of their biggest
efforts, however, was getting Washington to attend.[231] Congress agreed to
a Constitutional Convention, to be held in the Spring of 1787 at Philadelphia.
Each of the sovereign states were to choose delegates to attend the convention.[232]
Washington had pledged to
the several states not to reenter politics after the Revolutionary War, which
had left him in debt with his plantations in bad need of repair. He also had
various concerns his health and an earlier declined obligation he made to
the Cincinnatus Society. On December 4, 1786 Washington was chosen to lead the
Virginia delegation, but he hesitated, and eventually declined on December 21.
Washington also had concerns the legality of the convention, which would
ultimately create an office that he would come to occupy. After consulting
friends James Madison, Henry Knox, and others, he was persuaded to
attend the convention in that his presence would help to induce reluctant
states to send delegates and smooth the way for the ratification process.[233] On March 28,
Washington told Governor Edmund Randolph he would attend the
convention, but made it clear he did so involuntarily at the requests of his
friends.[234]
Constitutional
Convention (1787)
Main article: Constitutional
Convention (United States)
Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United
States by Howard Chandler
Christy, 1940. Washington, presiding officer, stands at right.
Washington arrived in
Philadelphia on May 9, 1787, a quorum convened on Friday May 25, and Washington
was nominated by Benjamin Franklin,
then unanimously chosen the convention's president general.[235] The convention's
state-mandated purpose was to revise the Articles of
Confederation with “all such alterations and further
provisions” required to improve them, and “when agreed to by [Congress], and
then duly confirmed by the several states”, the new government would be
established in place of the existing Articles government.[236]
Washington felt that a
national Constitution was overdue, would unify the nation and bring closure to
the Revolution.[237] To him, the Articles of
Confederationwere no more than "a rope of sand," linking
the states of the nation, and sought a more centralized federal government.[238] Regardless of the
twelve state legislatures sending delegations for the publicly stated purpose
of the Philadelphia Convention, some historians have determined that the
populace electing them generally disagreed, fearing a strong central power
would be just as overbearing as the British Parliament they had just forsaken.[239][n]
On May 27, the third day
of the convention, Randolph introduced the Virginia Plan, prepared by Madison, that
called for more than just simple amendments to the Articles, but for the drafting
of an entirely new constitution and a sovereign national government, which
Washington highly recommended.[240]
Washington lent his prestige
to the goodwill and work of the other delegates. After a couple of months, he
shared with Alexander Hamilton his
anxiety over his sole unification of the delegates: "I almost despair of
seeing a favorable issue to the proceedings of our convention and do therefore
repent having had any agency in the business."[241] Following the
Convention, he unsuccessfully lobbied many to support ratification of the Constitution,
such as anti-federalist Patrick Henry, to whom he said "the
adoption of it under the present circumstances of the Union is in my opinion
desirable", declaring the alternative would be anarchy.[242]Washington and Madison
then spent four days at Mount Vernon evaluating the transition of the new
government.[243]
First
presidential election
Main article: 1788–89
United States presidential election
The delegates to the
Convention anticipated a Washington presidency, and allowed him to define the
office once elected. He thought the completed achievements were monumental.[244][o]
The state electors under
the Constitution voted for the president on February 4, 1789, with Washington
suspecting most republicans had
not voted for him.[247] The mandated March
4 date passed without a Congressional quorum to count the votes. A quorum was
finally reached on April 5, and the votes were tallied the next day.[248] Congressional
Secretary Charles Thomson was
sent to Mount Vernon to tell Washington he had been elected president.
Washington won the majority of every state's electoral votes; John Adams
received the next highest vote and was elected Vice
President.[249] Washington had
"anxious and painful sensations" over leaving the "domestic
felicity" of Mount Vernon, but he departed for New York City on April 23 to be
inaugurated.[250]
Presidency (1789–1797)
Main article: Presidency
of George Washington
President George
Washington,
Gilbert Stuart (1795)
Washington was inaugurated on
April 30, 1789, taking the oath of office at Federal Hall in New York City.[251][p] His coach was led
by militia and a marching band, followed by statesmen and
foreign dignitaries in an inaugural
parade, with a crowd of 10,000.[253] Chancellor Robert R.
Livingston administered the oath, using a Bible
provided by the Masons, after which he was given a 13-gun salute.[254] In the Senate
Chamber he read his speech, asking that "that Almighty Being who rules
over the universe, who presides in the councils of nations—and whose providential aids can supply every human
defect consecrate the
liberties and happiness of the people of the United States" with his
blessing.[255] He declined a
salary, but Congress later provided $25,000 per year (equivalent to about
$715,000 in 2018), and he accepted, to defray costs of the presidency.[256]
Washington wrote to James
Madison: "As the first of everything in our situation will serve to
establish a precedent, it is devoutly wished on my part that these precedents
be fixed on true principles."[257] To that end, he
preferred the title "Mr. President" over more majestic names proposed
by the Senate, including "His Excellency" and "His Highness the
President".[258] His republican
precedents also included the inaugural address, messages to Congress, and
the cabinet form of
the executive
branch.[259]
Washington had planned to
resign after his first term, but the political strife in the nation convinced
him that he should remain in office.[260] He was an able
administrator, judge of talent and character, and talked regularly with
department heads to get their advice.[261] He tolerated
opposing views, despite fears that a democratic system would lead to political
violence, and he conducted a smooth transition
of power to his successor.[262] Washington remained
non-partisan throughout his presidency and opposed the divisiveness of
political parties, but he favored a strong central government, was sympathetic
to a Federalist form of government, and leery of the Republican opposition.[263]
Washington dealt with
major problems. The old Confederation lacked
the powers to handle its workload, had weak leadership, no executive, a small
bureaucracy of clerks, a large debt, worthless paper money, and no power to
establish taxes.[264] He had the task of
assembling an executive department, and relied on Tobias Lear for advice selecting its
officers.[265] Great Britain
refused to relinquish its forts in the American West,[264] and Barbary pirates
preyed on American merchant ships in the Merranean while the U.S. Army was
minuscule, and the Navy nonexistent.[266]
Cabinet
and executive departments
See also: Cabinet of the
United States
|
The Washington Cabinet |
||
|
Office |
Name |
Term |
|
George Washington |
1789–1797 |
|
|
1789–1797 |
||
|
1789–1790 |
||
|
1790–1793 |
||
|
1794–1795 |
||
|
1795–1797 |
||
|
1789–1795 |
||
|
1795–1797 |
||
|
1789–1794 |
||
|
1794–1796 |
||
|
1796–1797 |
||
|
1789–1794 |
||
|
1794–1795 |
||
|
1795–1797 |
||
Congress created
executive departments in 1789, including the State
Department in July, the Department
of War in August, and the Treasury
Department in September. Washington appointed fellow Virginian
Edmund Randolph as Attorney General, Samuel Osgood as Postmaster
General, Thomas Jefferson as Secretary
of State, and his commanding successor Henry Knox as Secretary of
War. Finally, he appointed Alexander Hamilton as Secretary
of the Treasury. Washington's cabinet became a consulting and
advisory body, not mandated by the Constitution.[267]
Washington's cabinet
members formed rival parties with sharply opposing views, most fiercely
illustrated between Hamilton and Jefferson.[268] He restricted
cabinet discussions to topics of his choosing, without participating in debate.
He occasionally requested cabinet opinions in writing, and expected department
heads to agreeably carry out his decisions. Hamilton played an active,
influential role advising Congress and its leaders.[264]
Domestic
issues
Washington was apolitical
and opposed the formation of parties, suspecting that conflict would
undermine republicanism.[269] His closest
advisors formed two factions, portending the First Party System.
Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton formed
the Federalist Party to
promote the national cr and a
financially powerful nation. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson opposed Hamilton's
agenda, and founded the Jeffersonian
Republicans. Washington favored Hamilton's agenda, which went into
effect and resulted in bitter controversy.[270]
Washington proclaimed
November 26 as a day of Thanksgiving,
in order to encourage national unity saying, "It is the duty of all
nations to acknowledge the providence of Almighty God, to obey His will, to be
grateful for His benefits, and humbly to implore His protection and
favor." On his appointed Thanksgiving Day (which later became an annual
holiday), he fasted while visiting
debtors in prison, but provided them with food and beer.[271]
National
Bank
The President's House in
Philadelphia was Washington's residence from 1790 to 1797
The establishment of
public cr became a primary challenge for the
federal government;[272] Hamilton submitted
a report of the matter to a deadlocked Congress, and later he, Madison, and
Jefferson reached the Compromise of 1790 in
which Jefferson agreed to Hamilton's debt proposals in exchange for moving the
nation's capitol temporarily to Philadelphia and then south near Georgetown on
the Potomac River.[270]The terms were legislated
in the Funding Act and
the Residence Act,
both of which Washington signed into law. Congress authorized the assumption
and payment of the nation's debts, with funding provided by customs
duties and excise
taxes.[273]
Hamilton created
controversy among Cabinet members by advocating the establishment of the First Bank
of the United States. Madison and Jefferson objected, but the bank
easily passed Congress. Jefferson and Randolph insisted the new bank was beyond
the authority granted by the constitution, as Hamilton believed. Washington
sided with Hamilton and signed the legislation on February 25; the rift between
the latter and Jefferson became openly hostile.[274]
The nation's first financial crisis occurred in March
1792. Hamilton's Federalists exploited large loans to gain control of U.S. debt
securities, causing a run on the
national bank;[275] the markets
returned to normal by mid-April.[276] Jefferson believed
Hamilton was part of the scheme, in spite of the latter's efforts to
ameliorate, and Washington again found himself in the middle of a feud.[277]
Jefferson–Hamilton
feud
Jefferson and Hamilton, bitter rivals
Jefferson and Hamilton
adopted diametrically opposed political principles. Hamilton believed in a
strong national government requiring a national bank and foreign loans to
function, while Jefferson believed the government should be primarily directed
by the states and the farm element; he also resented the idea of banks and
foreign loans. To Washington's dismay, persistent disputes and infighting
between the two men ensued.[278]Hamilton demanded that
Jefferson resign if he could not support Washington, and rather than respond
publicly, Jefferson told Washington that Hamilton's fiscal system would lead to
the overthrow of the Republic.[279]
Washington urged the two
secretaries to call a truce for the nation's sake, but they ignored him.[280] Washington reversed
his decision to retire after his first term, to minimize party strife but the
feud continued after his re-election.[279]Jefferson's political
actions, his support of Freneau's National Gazette,[281] and his attempt to
undermine Hamilton nearly led Washington to dismiss him from the cabinet;
Jefferson ultimately resigned his position in December 1793 and was thereafter
forsaken by Washington.[282]
The feud led to the
well-defined Federalist and Republican parties, and party affiliation became
necessary for election to Congress by 1794.[283] Washington remained
aloof from congressional attacks on Hamilton, but he did not publicly protect
him. The Hamilton–Reynolds
sex scandal opened Hamilton to disgrace, but Washington
continued to hold him in "very high esteem" as the dominant force in
establishing federal law and government.[284]
Whiskey
Rebellion
In March 1791, Congress
imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits to help curtail
the national
debt; grain farmers strongly protested in Pennsylvania's frontier districts, saying they were
unrepresented and were shouldering too much of the debt, comparing their
situation to excessive British taxation during the revolution. Washington
assembled his cabinet to discuss how to deal with the situation, and then called
on Pennsylvania officials to take the initiative, but they declined to take
military action. After appealing for peace, he reminded the protestors that,
unlike the rule of the British crown, the Federal law was issued by state
elected representatives. Threats and violence against tax collectors escalated
into defiance of federal authority in 1794 giving rise to the Whiskey Rebellion. On September 25, Washington
issued a final proclamation, threatening the use of military force. [285] The federal army
wasn't up to the task, so Washington invoked the Militia Act to
summon state militias.[286] Governors sent
troops, with Washington taking command, then gave command to Light-Horse Harry Lee to lead the troops into
the rebellious districts. The rebels dispersed, and there was no fighting.[287]
Washington's forceful
action demonstrated that the government could protect itself and its tax
collectors. This represented the first use of federal military force against
the states and citizens,[288] and remains the
only time a sitting president has commanded troops in the field. Washington
justified his action against "certain self-created societies" whom he
regarded as "subversive organizations" that threatened the national
union. He did not dispute their right to protest, but insisted their dissent
not violate federal law. Congress agreed and extended their congratulations to
him, with only Madison and Jefferson expressing indifference.[289]
Foreign
affairs
.jpg)
John Jay, negotiator of the Jay Treaty
In April 1792, the French
Revolutionary Wars began between Great Britain and France, and
Washington, with the cabinet's assent, declared America's neutrality. The
revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Citizen Genêt to
America. He was welcomed with great enthusiasm and began promoting the case for
France, using a network of new Democratic-Republican
Societies in major cities. He even issued French letters of marque and reprisal to French
ships manned by American sailors so that they could capture British merchant
ships. Washington denounced the societies and demanded that the French recall
Genêt.[290] On August 26, 1792,
during the early stages of the French Revolution, the National
Assembly of France granted honorary French Citizenship to
George Washington.[291]
Hamilton formulated
the Jay Treaty, to normalize trade relations with
Great Britain while removing them from western forts, and also to resolve
financial debts remaining from the Revolution.[292]Chief
Justice John Jay, acting as
Washington's negotiator, signed the treaty on November 19, 1794; adamantly
critical Jeffersonians supported France. Washington deliberated, then supported
the treaty because it avoided war with Britain;[293] he was deeply
disappointed that its provisions favored Great Britain.[294] After he mobilized
public opinion and secured ratification in the Senate,[295] Washington was
subjected to severe and frequent public criticism.[296]
The British agreed to
depart their forts around the Great Lakes, and the United States–Canada
boundary was subsequently modified. Numerous pre-Revolutionary debts were
liquidated, and the British opened their West Indies colonies to
American trade. The treaty secured peace with Britain and a decade of
prosperous trade. Jefferson claimed it angered France and "invited rather
than avoided" war.[297] Relations with
France deteriorated afterwords, leaving succeeding president John Adams with prospective war.[298] When James Monroe, American Minister to France, was
recalled by Washington for his opposition to the Treaty, the French refused to
accept his replacement, Charles Cotesworth
Pinckney and two days before Washington's term ended, the
French Directory declared the authority to seize American ships. [299]
Indian
affairs
Seneca Chief Sagoyewathawas Washington's peace emissary
with the Indian Northwestern Confederation
An early issue for
Washington was the British occupation in the northwest frontier and their concerted efforts to
turn incite Indians against settlers.[300] The Northwest
Indians allied with the British under Miami chief Little Turtle to resist American
expansion, and from 1783 to 1790 1,500 settlers were killed by the Indians.[301]
Washington decided Indian
affairs would be "directed entirely by the great principles of Justice and
humanity".[302] He provided that
their land interests be negotiated by treaties.[302] The administration
regarded powerful tribes as foreign nations, and Washington even smoked a peace pipe and drank wine with them at
the Philadelphia
presidential house.[303]
Washington made numerous
attempts to conciliate the Indians;[304] he equated the
killing of Indians with that of Whites, and sought to integrate them into American
culture.[305] Secretary of
War Henry Knox attempted to encourage
agriculture among the tribes.[304]
In the Southwest,
negotiations failed between federal commissioners and raiding Indian tribes
seeking retribution. Washington invited Creek Chief Alexander McGillivray and
twenty-four leading chiefs to New York, to negotiate a treaty; he was treated
as a foreign dignitary. On August 7, 1790 in Federal Hall, Knox and McGillivray concluded
the Treaty of New
York, which provided the tribes with agricultural supplies, and
McGillivray with a rank of Brigadier General Army and an salary of $1,500.[306]
Battle
of Fallen Timbers by R. F. Zogbaum, 1896. The Ohio Countrywas ceded to America in its
aftermath.
In 1790, Washington sent
Brigadier General Josiah Harmar to
pacify the Northwest Indians; Harmar was twice routed by
Little Turtle and forced to withdraw.[307][301] The Western Confederacy of
tribes used guerrilla tactics and
was an effective force against the sparsely manned American Army. Washington
sent Major General Arthur St. Clair from Fort
Washington on an expion to restore peace in the territory
in 1791. On November 4, St. Clair's forces were ambushed and soundly defeated with
few survivors, despite Washington's warning of surprise attacks. Washington was
outraged over the Indians' brutality and execution of captives, including women
and children.[308]
St. Clair resigned his
commission, and Washington replaced him with Revolutionary War hero
General Anthony Wayne.
From 1792 to 1793, Wayne instructed his troops on Indian warfare tactics and
instilled discipline lacking under St. Clair.[309] In August 1794,
Washington sent Wayne into the troubled Indian territory with authority to
drive them out by burning their villages and crops in the Maumee Valley.[310] On August 24, the
American army under Wayne's leadership defeated the western confederacy at
the Battle of Fallen
Timbers. In August 1795, two-thirds of the Ohio Country was opened up for American
settlement under the Treaty of Greenville.[311]
Second
term
Approaching the election
of 1792, Hamilton urged the popular Washington to run for a second
term. Many took his silence on this topic as assent, viewing him as the only
viable candidate. The Electoral
College unanimously re-elected him President on February 13,
1793, and John Adams as
Vice President by a vote of 77 to 50.[305]
After criticism over his
birthday celebration and giving a "monarchist" impression, Washington
arrived alone at his
inauguration in a simple carriage. The inauguration was held in
the Senate Chamber of Congress Hall in
Philadelphia on Monday, March 4, 1793, and the oath of office was administered
by Associate Justice William Cushing. This was the first
inauguration to take place in the temporary capitol of Philadelphia. Washington
aldo delivered the shortest inaugural address on record, at just 135 words, in
four sentences.[312]
The feuding Jefferson and
Hamilton agreed on one thing, that Washington remain in office for a second
term. Differences of opinion centered around the French Revolution, with
Washington remaining neutral, and over a national bank, which he strongly
supported.[313] This was known as
the Federalist Era.[314]
Commissioned
and named by President Washington in 1794.
In the final months of
his presidency, Washington was assailed by his political foes and a partisan press who accused him of being ambitious
and greedy. He argued he had taken no salary during the war and risked his life
in battle; he regarded the press as a disuniting, "diabolical" force
of falsehoods. This influenced his Farewell
Address, which related the troubling years of infighting and character
assassination by much of the press.[315]
In 1793, Washington
signed the Fugitive Slave Act,
allowing slave owners to cross state lines and retrieve runaway slaves.[316] He also signed
the Slave Trade Act of
1794, which limited American involvement in the Atlantic slave trade.[317] In 1794, he signed
the Naval Act that
created the United States Navy to
combat Barbary pirates before
the Barbary Wars.
Washington appointed Oliver Wolcott, Jr.,
Secretary of the Treasury in 1795, replacing Hamilton, who resigned in the
aftermath of the Whiskey Rebellion.
The upshot of the Rebellion strengthened Washington's bond with Hamilton,
distancing him from Knox who resigned.[318]
At the end of his second
term, Washington retired for personal and political reasons, fatigued and
disgusted with personal attacks, and to assure a truly contested presidential
election could be held. He did not feel bound to a two-term limit, but his
retirement ultimately set precedent. The two-term limit to the presidency was
formalized with the 1951 adoption of the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution.
Washington is often cred with setting the principal of a two-term
presidency, but it was Thomas Jefferson who first refused to run for a third
term on political grounds.[319]
Farewell
Address
Main article: George
Washington's Farewell Address
Washington's
Farewell Address(September 19, 1796)
Washington planned to
retire after his first term and in 1792 he had James Madison draft a farewell message
with a given sentiment and theme; after his reelection, he and Madison
finalized it.[320] The final version
was published on September 19, 1796, by David Claypoole's American Daily
Advertiser and three other Philadelphia newspapers.[321] It warned against
foreign alliances and their influence in domestic affairs, and against
bitter partisanship in
domestic politics. It also called for men to move beyond partisanship and serve
the common good, stressing that the United States must concentrate on its own
interests.[322] He counseled
friendship and commerce with all nations, but advised against involvement in
European wars.[323] He stressed the
importance of religion, asserting that
"religion and morality are indispensable supports" in a republic.[324]
Washington's address,
influenced by Hamilton, only aggravated bipartisan politics, setting the tone
for the coming 1796 election, which pitted Jefferson against Adams. Washington
favored Federalist ideology, is said to have supported Adams, but without endorsement.[325] On December 7,
1796, Washington read his eighth annual address to Congress. He spoke before
the House, wore a black velvet suit, and donned his sword, and was well
received by "the largest assemblage of citizens" in the crowded
gallery. He advocated for a military
academy, and celebrated the British departure from Northwest forts,
and that Algiers had released American prisoners—an event that
would facilitate the Department
of the Navy.[326] On February 8,
1797, Adams was elected President, and Jefferson Vice President.[327]
Washington's Farewell
Address proved to be one of the most influential statements on republicanism.[328] It stressed the
necessity and importance of national union, the value of the Constitution,
the rule of law, the evils of political parties,
and the proper virtues of a republican people. He referred to morality as "a necessary spring of
popular government", maintaining, "Whatever may be conceded to the
influence of refined education on minds of peculiar structure, reason, and
experience, both forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail in
exclusion of religious principle."[329]
Before its closing
remarks, the address expressed this sentiment:
"Though in reviewing
the incidents of my Administration I am unconscious of intentional error, I am
nevertheless too sensible of my defects not to think it probable that I may
have committed many errors. Whatever they may be, I fervently beseech the
Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend. I shall also
carry with me the hope that my country will never cease to view them with
indulgence, and that, after forty-five years of my life dedicated to its
service with an upright zeal, the faults of incompetent abilities will be
consigned to oblivion, as myself must soon be to the mansions of rest."[330]
Retirement (1797–1799)
Further
information: Post-presidency
of George Washington
Upon his retirement in
March 1797 to Mount Vernon, Washington devoted time to his plantations and
other business interests, including his distillery.[331] His plantation
operations were only minimally profitable,[332] and his lands in
the west (Piedmont),
under Indian attacks, yielded little income, with the squatters there refusing
to pay rent. He attempted to sell these off but without success.[333] He became an even
more committed Federalist, vocal in his support of the Alien and Sion
Acts, convincing Federalist John Marshall to run for Congress to
weaken the Jeffersonian hold on Virginia.[334]
Washington grew restless
in retirement, prompted by tensions with France, and wrote to Secretary of
War James McHenry offering
to organize President Adams' army.[335] French privateers
began seizing American ships in 1798, relations with France deteriorated and
led to the "Quasi-War". Adams
offered Washington a commission as lieutenant general on July 4, 1798, and as
commander-in-chief of the armies. He accepted, replacing James Wilkinson[336] and served as the
commanding general from July 13, 1798, until his death 17 months later. He
participated in planning for a provisional army but avoided involvement in
details. In advising McHenry of potential officers for the army, he appeared to
make a complete break with Jefferson's Democratic-Republicans, “...you could as
soon scrub the blackamoor white, as to change the principles of a profest
Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the government
of this country.“[337] Washington
delegated the active leadership of the army to Hamilton as major general. No
army invaded the United States during this period, and Washington did not
assume a field command.[338]
Washington was thought to
be rich because of the well-known "glorified façade of wealth and
grandeur" at Mount Vernon,[339] but nearly all of
his wealth was in the form of land and slaves rather than ready cash.
Historians estimate that the estate was worth $1 million in 1799 dollars,
equivalent to $20 million in 2018.[340] To spur development
around the new Federal City,
named in his honor, Washington bought land parcels. Rather than selling multiple
lots to large investors, he sold individual lots to middle-income investors,
believing they would more likely commit to making improvements.[341]
Final
days and death
Washington on his
Deathbed
Junius Brutus Stearns 1799
On Thursday, December 12,
1799, Washington inspected his farms on horseback in snow and sleet and was
late for dinner, but refused to change out of his wet clothes, not wanting to
keep his guests further waiting. He had a sore throat the following day but again
went out in freezing, snowy weather to mark trees for cutting. That evening, he
complained as well of chest congestion, but was cheerful. On Saturday, he awoke
to an inflamed throat with difficulty breathing, ordered estate overseer George
Rawlins to remove nearly a pint of his
blood, a practice of the time, and several physicians were
summoned: James Craik, Gustavus Richard
Brown, and Elisha C. Dick.[342] (Dr. William Thornton arrived
some hours after Washington died.[343])
Dr. Brown thought
Washington had quinsy;
Dick thought the condition was a more serious "violent inflammation of the
throat".[344] Continued
bloodletting (approximately five pints) was futile, and his condition
deteriorated. Dick unsuccessfully proposed a tracheotomy, unknown to the other two doctors
who disapproved.[345] Washington
instructed Brown and Dick to leave the room, while he assured Craik,
"Doctor, I die hard, but I am not afraid to go."[346]
Washington's illness and
death came more swiftly than expected.[347] He instructed his
private secretary Tobias Lear to
wait three days before his burial, out of fear of being entombed alive.[348] Washington asked
Lear, "Do you understand me ?". "Yes," responded Lear.
Washington said, "Tis well."[349] Washington died
peacefully with Martha composed at the foot of his bed around 10 p.m. on
Saturday, December 14, 1799 at age of sixty-seven. Funeral arrangements
included Washington's Masonic lodge of Alexandria,
Virginia, various members of the clergy, Dr. Craik, military officers, and various
members of the Fairfax family. When news of his death reached Congress, they
immediately adjourned for the day and the Speaker's chair was shrouded in black the next
morning.[350]
The funeral was held four
days after Washington's death on December 18, 1799, at Mount Vernon, where his
body was interred. Cavalry and foot soldiers led the procession, and six
colonels served as the pallbearers. The Mount Vernon funeral service was restricted
mostly to family and friends.[351] Reverend Thomas
Davis read the funeral service by the vault with a brief address, followed by a
ceremony performed by various members of Washington's Masonic lodge in Alexandria.[352] Congress
chose Light-Horse Harry Lee,
a Continental Army officer loved by Washington, to deliver the eulogy. Word of
his death traveled slowly; church bells rang in the cities, and many places of
business closed.[353] People worldwide
admired Washington and were saddened by his death, and memorial processions
were held in major cities of the United States. Martha wore a black mourning
cape for one year, and she burned their correspondence to protect their
privacy. Only five letters between the couple are known to have survived, two
letters from Martha to George and three from him to her.[354]
The diagnosis of
Washington's illness and the immediate cause of his death have been subjects of
debate since the day that he died. The published account of Drs. Craik and
Brown[q] stated that his
symptoms had been consistent with cynanche trachealis(tracheal inflammation), a term of that
period used to describe severe inflammation of the structures of the upper
windpipe, including quinsy. Accusations have persisted since Washington's death
concerning medical malpractice, with some believing that he had been bled to
death.[345] Various modern
medical authors have speculated that he died from a severe case of epiglottitiscomplicated by the given
treatments (which were all accepted medical practice in that day), most notably
the massive deliberate blood loss, which almost certainly caused hypovolemic shock.[356][r]
Burial and aftermath
The
sarcophagi of George (right) and Martha Washington at the present tomb's
entrance
Washington was buried in
the old family vault at Mount Vernon, situated on a grassy slope covered with
juniper and cypress trees. It contained the remains of his brother Lawrence and
other family members, but the decrepit vault was in need of repair, prompting
Washington to leave instructions in his will for the construction of a new
vault.[353]
In 1830, a disgruntled
ex-employee of the estate attempted
to steal what he thought was Washington's skull, prompting the
construction of a more secure vault.[361] The next year, the
new vault was constructed at Mount Vernon to receive the remains of George and
Martha and other relatives.[362] In 1832, a joint
Congressional committee debated moving his body from Mount Vernon to a crypt in
the Capitol. The crypt had been built by architect Charles Bulfinch in the 1820s during the
reconstruction of the burned-out capital, after the Burning of Washington by
the British during the War of 1812.
Southern opposition was intense, antagonized by an ever-growing rift between
North and South; many were concerned that Washington's remains could end up on
"a shore foreign to his native soil" should the country become
divided, and Washington's remains stayed in Mount Vernon.[363]
On October 7, 1837,
Washington's remains were placed, still in the original lead coffin, within a
marble sarcophagus designed by William
Strickland and constructed by John Struthers earlier that year.[364] The sarcophagus was
sealed and encased with planks, and an outer vault was constructed around it.[365] The outer vault has
the sarcophagi of both George and Martha Washington; the inner vault has the
remains of other Washington family members and relatives.[362]
Personal life
Washington was somewhat
reserved in personality, but he generally had a strong presence among others.
He made speeches and announcements when required, but he was not a noted orator
or debater.[366] He was taller than
most of his contemporaries;[367]accounts of his height
vary from 6 ft (1.83 m) to 6 ft 3.5 in (1.92 m) tall,
and he weighed between 210–220 pounds (95–100 kg) as an adult.[368] He had wide hips, a
slim waist, a broad chest, narrow shoulders, muscular thighs, and exceptionally
large hands, and he was widely known for his great strength—particularly in his
long arms.[369] He had
piercing grey-blue eyes, fair
skin, and light reddish-brown hair,
which he wore powdered in the fashion of the day.[370] He had a rugged and
dominating presence, which garnered respect from his male peers. He suffered
frequently from severe tooth decay, and ultimately lost all his teeth but one.
He had several sets of false teeth made which he wore during his presidency—none
of which were made of wood, contrary to common lore. These dental problems left
him in constant pain, for which he took laudanum.[371] As a public figure,
he relied upon the strict confidence of his dentist.[372]
Washington was a talented
equestrian early in life. He collected thoroughbreds at Mount Vernon, and his
two favorite horses were Blueskin and Nelson.[373] Fellow Virginian
Thomas Jefferson said that Washington was "the best horseman of his age
and the most graceful figure that could be seen on horseback";[374] he also hunted
foxes, deer, ducks, and other game.[375] He was an excellent
dancer and attended the theater frequently. He drank in moderation but was
morally opposed to excessive drinking, the smoking of tobacco, gambling, and
profanity.[376]
Slavery
Main articles: George
Washington and slavery and Slavery
in the colonial United States
Washington
as Farmer at Mount Vernon
Junius Brutus Stearns,
1851
Washington had no
animosity toward owning slaves prior to 1775. During the Revolutionary War,
however, his views moderated under the influence of anti-slavery officers he
was friendly with, such as Lafayette.[377] In 1775, Washington
initially allowed only 200 blacks to serve in the Continental Army, but by
January 1778, he endorsed the New England states plan to recruit enslaved
blacks, their eventual emancipation, and compensation to their slave owners. On
October 19, 1781 Washington ordered that recaptured runaway slaves that sided
with the British should be returned to their American masters. [378] By the end of the
war, Washington's integrated army was composed of one-tenth blacks.[379]Washington allowed black
American soldiers, who had been promised freedom, to be returned to their
masters.[378] Although Washington
insisted American runaway slaves be returned, British Major General Sir Guy Carleton would not return
American slaves who enlisted into the British Army. [380]
Washington supported many
slaves who were too young or too old to work, greatly increasing Mount Vernon's
slave population and causing the plantation to operate at a loss in the
process.[381] He spoke privately
often of freeing his slaves, but never publicly condemned slavery, believing
the issue would divide the new nation.[382] At the
Constitutional Convention, Washington received public criticism in
Massachusetts for his silence on slavery.[383]
While President,
Washington maintained close supervision of Mount Vernon through letters to his
overseers;[384] there is one
account from him authorizing a whipping that was given to a slave who had badly
beaten his wife.[378] At times, Mount
Vernon slaves ran away to find freedom.[385][386] To avoid any
controversy, Washington often used secretive methods to return them rather than
post public advertisements in the North.[387][s] However, between
1760 and 1771, Washington placed ads for the recapture of five runaways,
offering handsome rewards for their apprehension. In 1766, tired of a slave who
ran away once too often, Washington wrote to Captain John Thompson, asking him
to sell one Washington's slaves, whom he described as "a rogue and a
run-away". Expressing little concern for the slave's comfort, Washington
recommended that Thompson keep him "handcuffed until you get to sea or in
the bay."[388][389]
On his Mount Vernon
plantation farms, Washington discouraged cruelty, yet there are records of
harsh punishments, including whipping inflicted on male and female slaves by
their overseers, some of whom were also slaves. He directed that a warning be
given to first offenders before resorting to whipping, which was then subject
to his prior approval; this was not always enforced, due to his prolonged
absences.[390] In other
circumstances, he shipped "misbehaving" slaves to the West Indies, selling one recalcitrant slave
for "one pipe and quarter cask of wine from the West Indies".[391][392] He also used
nonviolent forms of discipline, including cash payments, material incentives,
and "admonition and advice".[393] Washington
sometimes personally cared for ill or injured slaves, and he provided
physicians and midwives. Washington's
slaves were inoculated for smallpox, worked from
dawn to dusk, but were poorly clothed and housed. His slaves received two hours
off for meals during the workday, and were not put to work on Sundays
(the Sabbath), Christmas, Easter, or Pentecost.[394] However, Washington
believed that black people were incapable of understanding what freedom
entailed. In 1798, he justified keeping black slaves by telling John Bernard
that, "Till the mind of the slave has been educated to perceive what are
the obligations of a state of freedom, and not confound a man’s with a brute’s,
the gift would insure its abuse." Washington also expressed the view that
when his slaves claimed to be sick, they were often "lazy" and
"idle".[395][391]
Washington condemned
slaves for taking up arms in their fight for freedom in St Domingue, in a conflict
that would result in independent Haiti in 1804. Washington offered sympathy and
money to the French slaveholders in St Domingue.[391]
By 1799, there were 317
slaves living at Mount Vernon; he owned 124 outright and held 153 for his
wife's dower interest.[386]During the summer,
Washington made a new will that directed his 124 slaves be freed upon the death
of Martha.[396] He was among the
few slave-holding Founding Fathers to do so.[397] He provided that
old and young freed people be taken care of indefinitely; younger ones were to
be taught to read and write and placed in suitable occupations. Martha freed
his slaves on January 1, 1801, a year after Washington's death and a year
before her own. Modern historian John E. Ferling has posited that
Washington's freeing of his slaves through his will was "an act of
atonement for a lifetime of concurrence in human exploitation".[396]
Religion
and Freemasonry
Main articles: Religious
views of George Washington and American
Enlightenment
Washington descended from
Anglican minister Lawrence
Washington (his great-great-grandfather), whose troubles with
the Church of England may
have prompted his heirs to emigrate to America.[398] Washington was
baptized as an infant in April 1732 and became a devoted member of the Church
of England (the Anglican Church).[399] He served for over
twenty years as a vestrymanand churchwarden for Fairfax Parish and Truro Parish.[400] He privately prayed
and read the Bible daily, and he publicly encouraged
people and the nation to pray.[401] He may have
taken communion on a regular basis prior to the
Revolutionary War, but he did not do so following the war, for which he was
admonished by Pastor James
Abercrombie.[402]
George
Washington as Master of his Lodge, 1793
Washington believed in a
"wise, inscrutable, and irresistible" Creator God who was active in the
Universe, contrary to deistic thought.[398] He referred to this
God by the Enlightenment terms Providence, the Creator, or
the Almighty, and also as the Divine Author or
the Supreme Being.[403]He believed in a divine
power who watched over battlefields, was involved in the outcome of war, was
protecting his life, and was involved in American politics—and specifically in
the creation of the United States.[404][t] Modern
historian Ron Chernow has
posited that Washington avoided evangelistic Christianity or hellfire-and-brimstone speech
along with communion and anything inclined to "flaunt his
religiosity". Chernow has also said Washington "never used his
religion as a device for partisan purposes
or in official undertakings".[406] No mention of Jesus
Christ appears in his private
correspondence, and such references are rare in his public writings.[407] He often quoted
from the Bible or paraphrased it, and often referred to the Anglican Book of Common Prayer.[408] There is debate on
whether he is best classed as a Christian, a theistic rationalist,
or both.[409]
Washington
emphasized religious toleration in
a nation with numerous denominations and
religions. He publicly attended services of different Christian denominations
and prohibited anti-Catholic
celebrations in the Army.[410] He engaged workers
at Mount Vernon without regard for religious belief or affiliation. While
President, he acknowledged major religious sects and gave speeches on religious
toleration.[411] He was distinctly
rooted in the ideas, values, and modes of thinking of the Enlightenment,[412] but harbored no
contempt of organized Christianity
and its clergy, "being no bigot myself to any mode of worship".[412] He proclaimed in
1793, "We have abundant reason to rejoice that in this Land the light of
truth and reason has triumphed over the power of bigotry and
superstition."[413]
Freemasonry was a widely accepted
institution in the late 18th century, known for advocating moral teachings.[414] Washington was
attracted to the Masons' dedication to the Enlightenment principles of
rationality, reason, and brotherhood. The American lodges did not share the anti-clerical perspective of the controversial
European lodges.[415] A Masonic lodge was
established in Fredericksburg,
Virginia, in September 1752, and Washington was initiated two months later at
the age of 20 as one of its first Entered Apprentices. Within a year, he
progressed through its ranks to become a Master Mason.[416] Before and during
the American Revolution he used Masonic lodges as meeting places to plot
against the British. Washington had a high regard for the Masonic Order, but
his personal lodge attendance was sporadic. In 1777, a convention of Virginia
lodges asked him to be the Grand Master of the newly established Grand Lodge of
Virginia, but he declined due to his commitments leading the
Continental Army. After 1782, he corresponded frequently with Masonic lodges
and members,[417] and in 1788 he was
listed as Master in the Virginia charter of Alexandria
Lodge No. 22.[418]
Historical reputation and legacy
Further
information: Legacy of
George Washington and Cultural
depictions of George Washington
The Constable-Hamilton
Portrait by Gilbert Stuart
Washington's legacy
endures as one of the most influential in American history, since he served as
commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, a hero of the Revolution, and the
first president of the United States. Various historians maintained that
Washington was a dominant factor in America's founding, the Revolutionary War,
the Constitutional Convention. Congressman Light-Horse Harry Lee, a Revolutionary War
comrade, eulogized
Washington: "First in war—first in peace—and first in the
hearts of his countrymen."[419] Lee's words became
the hallmark by which Washington's reputation was impressed upon the American
memory, with some biographers regarding him as the great exemplar of republicanism. Washington set many precedents
for the national government and the presidency in particular, and he was called
the "Father of His Country" as early as 1778.[420][u]
In 1885, Congress
proclaimed Washington's birthday to be a federal holiday.[422] Twentieth-century
biographer Douglas Southall
Freeman concluded, "The great big thing stamped across
that man is character."
Modern historian David Hackett Fischer has
expanded upon Freeman's assessment, defining Washington's character as
"integrity, self-discipline, courage, absolute honesty, resolve, and
decision, but also forbearance, decency, and respect for others".[423]
Washington became an
international symbol for liberation and nationalism, as the leader of the first
successful revolution against a colonial empire. The Federalists made him the symbol of their
party, but the Jeffersonians continued
to distrust his influence for many years and delayed building the Washington Monument.[424] On January 31, 1781
(before he had even begun his presidency), he was elected a member of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences.[425] During the United States
Bicentennial, to ensure Washington would never be outranked,
Washington was posthumously appointed to the grade of General of the Armies of
the United States by the congressional joint resolution Public Law 94-479 passed
on January 19, 1976, with an effective appointment date of July 4, 1976.[426][v] Parson Weems's hagiographical account The
Life of Washington (1809) helped elevate Washington to heroic
legendary status.[429] The authenticity of
Weems's anecdotes, which include the story of Washington cutting down the
cherry tree as a child and his utterance "I cannot tell a lie", is
unknown.[430][w]
Historian Gordon S. Wood concluded that "the
greatest act of his life, the one that gave him his greatest fame, was his
resignation as commander-in-chief of the American forces."[431] According to
historian Ron Chernow, Washington was in part "burdened by public
life" and divided by "unacknowledged ambition mingled with
self-doubt." [432]
Papers
Main article: The Papers
of George Washington
The serious collection
and publication of Washington's documentary record began with the pioneer work
of Jared Sparks in
the 1830s in Life and Writings of George Washington (12 vols.,
1834–1837).[433] The Writings of
George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745–1799 (1931–44)
is a 39-volume set ed by John Clement
Fitzpatrick who was commissioned by the George
Washington Bicentennial Commission. It contains over 17,000 letters and
documents and is available online from the University of
Virginia.[434][435]
Monuments
and memorials
Washington Monument,
Washington, DC
Main article: List
of memorials to George Washington
Many places and monuments
have been named in honor of Washington, most notably the nation's
capital, Washington, D.C. (which
is also indirectly named for Christopher Columbus,
"D.C." standing for "District of Columbia"). The state of Washington is
the only state to be named after a president.[436]
Postage
and currency
Further
information: U.S.
presidents on U.S. postage stamps § George Washington,
and History of
Virginia on stamps
George Washington appears
on contemporary U.S. currency, including the one-dollar
bill and the quarter-dollar
coin (the Washington quarter).
Washington and Benjamin Franklin appeared on the nation's first postage stamps in 1847.
Since that time, Washington has appeared on many postage issues, more than any
other person.[437]
|
Washington issue
of 1862 |
Washington-Franklin
issue of 1917 |
Washington |
Washington on the
1928 dollar bill |
.jpg)
See also
Main article: List of
George Washington articles
·
Coat
of arms of the Washington family
·
Newburgh letter (Letter written to
Washington by Colonel Lewis Nicola)
·
George
Washington's political evolution
·
Electoral
history of George Washington
·
British Army during the American War of Independence
·
American
Revolutionary War portal
References
Notes
1. ^ April 6 is when
Congress counted the votes of the Electoral College and certified a president.
April 30 is when Washington was sworn in.[1]
2. ^ Old style: February
11, 1731
3. ^ Contemporaneous
records used the Julian calendar and the Annunciation Style of
enumerating years, recording his birth as February 11, 1731. The British Calendar (New
Style) Act 1750, implemented in 1752, altered the official British
dating method to the Gregorian calendar with the start of the year on January 1
(it had been March 25). These changes resulted in dates being moved forward 11
days, and an advance of one year for those between January 1 and March 25. For
a further explanation, see Old Style and
New Style dates.[3]
4. ^ Washington was
taught mathematics, trigonometry, and surveying, by school master Henry
Williams, and was talented in draftsmanship and map-making. By early adulthood
Washington was writing with "considerable force" and
"precision."[15]
5. ^ the Forks of the Ohio, and future site of Pittsburgh
6. ^ The Second Virginia
regiment was constituted and raised under Colonel William Byrd III; it also was
placed under Forbes.[54]
7. ^ Washington secretly
instructed Captain William Crawford of
the Ohio Country to scout out forbidden lands in the 1760s, beyond the Kings'
Royal Proclamation Line.[84]
8. ^ In a letter of
September 20, 1765, Washington protested to "Robert Cary & Co."
of the low prices that he received for his tobacco, and for the inflated prices
that he was forced to pay on second-rate goods from London.[86]
9. ^ Congress initially
attempted to direct the war effort in June 1776 with the committee known as
"Board of War and Ordnance"; this was succeeded by the Board of War in July 1777, which
eventually included members of the military.[116]
10. ^ This painting has
received both acclaim and criticism;[133] see Emanuel Leutze article for details.
11. ^ While Jefferson
denounced the Society of Cincinnati’s herary membership, he praised
Washington for his "moderation and virtue" in relinquishing command.
Washington's revolutionary adversary, King
George III, reportedly praised Washington for this act.[213]
12. ^ In May 1783, Henry Knox formed the Society of the
Cincinnatito carry on the memory of the War of Independence and
establish a fraternity of officers. The Society was named after Cincinnatus,
a famous Roman military leader, who relinquished his position after his Roman
victory at Algidus (458 BC).
However, he had reservations some of the society's precepts, including
hery requirements for membership and the receiving of money from foreign
interests.[215]
13. ^ Washington was also
suffering from severe rheumatism and by April 1787 couldn't raise his arm to
his head and had to keep it in a sling.[221]
14. ^ At Founders Online,
National Archives “List of State Acts Granting Congress Regulatory Powers”,
From February to April 1787 under the Articles of Confederation, at least
twelve of the thirteen states contemplated ceding Congress power to regulate
commerce for 15-25 years: either 1) outright (RI) or 2) when “other States”
agreed (MA, SC-GA - excepting slavery), 3) when “nine States” agreed (CT, NJ,
PA, DE, MD, VA), or 4) only when “all the States” had given “similar powers”
(NH,NC) — [NY, no record in the National Archives].
15. ^ Starting in 1774,
14 men served as President
of the Continental Congress but bore no relationship to the presidency
established under Article II of the Constitution. Under the Articles of
Confederation, Congress called its presiding officer "President of the
United States in Congress Assembled", but this position had no national
executive powers.[245][246]
16. ^ There has been
debate over whether Washington added "so help me God" to the end of
the oath.[252]
17. ^ The first account
of Washington's death was written by Doctors Craik and Brown, published
in The Times of Alexandria five days after his death on
December 19, 1799. The complete text can be found in The Eclectic
Medical Journal (1858)[355]
18. ^ Modern experts have
concluded that Washington probably died from acute bacterial epiglottitis
complicated by the administered treatments, including Morens and Wallenborn in
1999,[357][358] Cheatham in
2008, [359] and Vadakan in
2005.[360]These treatments included
multiple doses of calomel (a
cathartic or purgative) and extensive bloodletting.
19. ^ For example,
Washington privately ordered the capture of Martha's fugitive slave Oney Judge in 1796; the effort failed.[385]
20. ^ After the
Constitution’s adoption, when it was under attack in Pennsylvania, Washington
wrote to Richard Peters, “It would seem from the public Gazettes that the
minority in your State are preparing for another attack of the now adopted
Government; how formidable it may be, I know not. But that Providence which has
hitherto smiled on the honest endeavours of the well meaning part of the People
of this Country will not, I trust, withdraw its support from them at this
crisis.”[405]
21. ^ The earliest
known image in which Washington is identified as the Father of
His Country is in the frontispiece of a 1779 German-language almanac, with
calculations by David Rittenhouse and
published by Francis Bailey in Lancaster County Pennsylvania. Der Gantz
Neue Verbesserte Nord-Americanische Calendar has Fame appearing with
an image of Washington holding a trumpet to her lips, from which come the words
"Der Landes Vater" (translated as "the father of the
country" or "the father of the land").[421]
22. ^ In Portraits
& Biographical Sketches of the United States Army's Senior Officer,[427] William Gardner
Bell states that Washington was recalled back into military service from his
retirement in 1798, and "Congress passed legislation that would have made
him General of the Armies of the United States, but his services were not
required in the field and the appointment was not made until the Bicentennial
in 1976, when it was bestowed posthumously as a commemorative honor." In
1976, President Gerald Ford specified
that Washington would "rank first among all officers of the Army, past and
present."[428]
23. ^ The idea of
Washington "cutting down" the cherry tree is a revision of Weem's
original account, where he maintains that only "barking" (removal of
bark from the tree) occurred. Weems' story has never been proven or disproven.[430]
Citations
1. ^ Ferling 2009, p. 274; Taylor 2016, pp. 395, 494.
2. ^ Randall 1997, p. 303.
3. ^ Engber 2006.
4. ^ Chernow 2010, p. 6.
5. ^ Ferling 2002, p. 3; Chernow 2010, pp. 5–7.
6. ^ Chernow 2010, p. 3–5; Brown 1976, p. 476.
7. ^ Chernow 2010, p. 3–5.
8. ^ Cooke 2002, p. 2; Hofstra 1998, p. vii; Alden 1996, p. 3; Wiencek 2003, p. 54; Fitzpatrick 1936; Chernow 2010; Ferling 2002.
9. ^ Chernow 2010, pp. 6–7; Alden 1996, pp. 2, 26; Randall 1997, p. 17.
10. ^ Ferling 2002, p. 4; Chernow 2010, pp. 7–8.
11. ^ Chernow 2010, pp. 8–10.
12. ^ Chernow 2010, pp. 9–10.
13. ^ Ferling 2002, p. 14; Chernow 2010, pp. 11–12.
14. ^ Knott 2005, pp. 1–5; Ferling 2010, pp. 5–6; Ferling 2002, p. 14; Chernow 2010, pp. 11–12.
15. ^ Chernow 2010, pp. 11-12.
16. ^ Cooke 2002, p. 2; Chernow 2010, p. 10; Ferling 2002, p. 14; Alden 1996, pp. 4–5, 73.
17. ^ Ferling 2002, p. 14.
18. ^ Randall 1997, p. 36; Ferling 2002, p. 15; Chernow 2010, p. 19.
19. ^ Ferling 2002, p. 15.
20. ^ Fitzpatrick 1936, v. 19, p. 510; Chernow 2010, p. 22.
21. ^ Chernow 2010, p. 23.
22. ^ Chernow 2010, p. 24.
23. ^ Flexner 1974, p. 8.
24. ^ Freeman 1948, p. 1:264; Chernow 2010, p. 26.
25. ^ Freeman 1948, pp. 1:15–72; Chernow 2010, p. 26.
26. ^ Freeman 1948, p. 1:268; Fitzpatrick 1936, p. 510.
27. ^ Chernow 2010, p. 31; Fitzpatrick 1936.
28. ^ Randall 1997, p. 74; Chernow 2010, pp. 26–27, 31.
29. ^ Fitzpatrick 1936, v. 19, p. 510.
30. ^ Freeman 1948, pp. 1:274–327; Chernow 2010, p. 33.
31. ^ Lengel 2005, pp. 23–24; Fitzpatrick 1936, 19, pp. 510–511; Chernow 2010, p. 33.
32. ^ Jump up to:a b Fitzpatrick 1936, v. 19, p. 511.
33. ^ Grizzard 2002, p. 86; Lengel 2005, p. xxiii.
34. ^ Alden 1996, pp. 13–15.
35. ^ Chernow 2010, pp. 31–32.
36. ^ Lengel 2005, pp. 31–38; Anderson 2007, pp. 53–58; Misencik 2014, p. 131.
37. ^ Grizzard 2002, pp. 115–19; Lengel 2005, p. 44; Fitzpatrick 1936.
38. ^ Ellis 2004, pp. 17–18.
39. ^ Ferling 2009, pp. 25–27.
40. ^ Ellis 2004, pp. 17-18; Jones & Wahrman 2002, p. 34; Ellis 2004, p. 195; Leduc 1943.
41. ^ Anderson 2007, pp. 100–01.
42. ^ Fitzpatrick 1936; Alden 1996.
43. ^ Jump up to:a b Fitzpatrick 1936, p. 511.
44. ^ Jump up to:a b Alden 1996, p. 37; Ferling 2010, pp. 35–36.
45. ^ Jump up to:a b Alden 1996, pp. 37–46.
46. ^ Ferling 2009, pp. 28–30.
47. ^ Fitzpatrick 1936, pp. 511–512.
48. ^ Fitzpatrick 1936, pp. 511–512; Flexner 1965, p. 138; Fischer 2004, pp. 15–16; Ellis 2004, p. 38.
49. ^ Jump up to:a b Chernow 2010, pp. 72–73.
50. ^ Fischer 2004, pp. 15–16; Ellis 2004, p. 38.
51. ^ Taylor 2016, pp. 44-45.
52. ^ Jump up to:a b Fitzpatrick 1936, p. 512.
53. ^ Fitzpatrick 1936, p. 512; Chernow 2010, p. 87.
54. ^ Flexner 1965, pp. 206–207.
55. ^ Flexner 1965, p. 194; Fitzpatrick 1936, p. 512.
56. ^ Fitzpatrick 1936, p. 87; Chernow 2010, p. 512.
57. ^ Flexner 1965, pp. 194, 206–207.
58. ^ Chernow 2010, p. 90.
59. ^ Ferling 2009, pp. 41–42; Chernow 2010, pp. 90–91.
60. ^ Lengel 2005, pp. 75–76, 81.
61. ^ Chernow 2010, pp. 92-93; Ferling 2002, pp. 32-33.
62. ^ Chernow 2010, p. 93.
63. ^ Ferling 2002, pp. 33–34; Wiencek 2003, p. 69.
64. ^ Chernow 2010; Flexner 1974, pp. 42–43.
65. ^ Chernow 2010, pp. 97–98; Fischer 2004, p. 14.
66. ^ Wiencek 2003; "Ten Facts Washington & Slavery".
67. ^ Rasmussen & Tilton 1999,
p. 100; Chernow 2010, p. 184.
68. ^ Ferling 2002, pp. 44–45.
69. ^ Grizzard 2002, pp. 135–37.
70. ^ Jump up to:a b Ellis 2004, pp. 41–42, 48.
71. ^ Alden 1993, p. 71.
72. ^ Ferling 2009, pp. 49–54, 68.
73. ^ Ferling 2002, pp. 43–44; Ellis 2004, p. 44.
74. ^ Brown 1976, p. 476.
75. ^ Ellis 2004, pp. 49–50.
76. ^ Pogue 2004, pp. 2–10.
77. ^ Hirschfeld 1997, pp. 44–45; Ferling 2009, p. 351.
78. ^ Chernow 2010, p. 161.
79. ^ Higginbotham 2001, p. 154.
80. ^ Ferling 2010, pp. 66–67; Ellis 2004, pp. 50–53; Higginbotham 2001, pp. 67–93.
81. ^ Fischer 2004, p. 14.
82. ^ Ferling 2002, pp. 73–76.
83. ^ Chernow 2010, p. 136.
84. ^ Chernow 2010, p. 148.
85. ^ Chernow 2010, p. 137; Taylor 2016, p. 61.
86. ^ Chernow 2010, p. 138.
87. ^ Ferling 2009, p. 68.
88. ^ Taylor 2016, p. 103.
89. ^ Freeman 1968, pp. 174–76; Taylor 2016, p. 75.
90. ^ Randall 1997, p. 262; Chernow 2010, p. 166.
91. ^ Alden 1996, p. 101.
92. ^ Chernow 2010, p. 167.
93. ^ Ferling 2010, p. 100; Ford, Hunt & Fitzpatrick 1904, v. 19, p.
11.
94. ^ Taylor 2016, p. 132.
95. ^ Taylor 2016, pp. 3-9.
96. ^ Taylor 2016, pp. 121-123.
97. ^ Chernow 2010, p. 181.
98. ^ Chernow 2010, p. 182.
99. ^ Chernow 2010, pp. 185, 547.
100.
^ Taylor 2016, pp. 67–68; Ellis 2004, p. 185–186; Chernow 2010, p. 514; Fitzpatrick 1936.
101.
^ Rasmussen & Tilton 1999,
p. 294; Fitzpatrick 1936, p. 514; Taylor 2016, pp. 141–142; Ferling 2009, pp. 86–87.
102.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 190–191; Ferling 2002, p. 108.
103.
^ Ferling 2002, pp. 109–110; Puls 2008, p. 31.
104.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 193.
105.
^ Taylor 2016, p. 143.
106.
^ Isaacson 2003, p. 112; Ferling 2002, p. 143; Taylor 2016, p. 514; Fitzpatrick 1936.
107.
^ Ferling 2002, pp. 112–113.
108.
^ Ferling 2002, p. 116.
109.
^ Taylor 2016, p. 144.
110.
^ Taylor 2016, pp. 151–152.
111.
^ Taylor 2016, p. 153.
112.
^ Ferling 2002, pp. 117–118.
113.
^ Ferling 2002, p. 117.
114.
^ Taylor 2016; Ferling 2002.
115.
^ Lengel 2005, pp. 124–126; Higginbotham 1985, pp. 125–34; Ferling 2002, p. 118–119; Taylor 2016, pp. 153–154; Fitzpatrick 1936, p. 514.
116.
^ Jump up to:a b Freedman 2008, p. 42.
117.
^ 'The First Conspiracy' unspools plot on Washington in
1776(Associated Press)
118.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 232-233.
119.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 235.
120.
^ Fitzpatrick 1936, pp. 514–515.
121.
^ Taylor 2016, pp. 162–163.
122.
^ Taylor 2016, p. 160–161.
123.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 237.
124.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 244–245; Taylor 2016, pp. 162–163.
125.
^ Ellis 2004; Chernow 2010.
126.
^ Taylor 2016, p. 164.
127.
^ McCullough 2005, pp. 186–95.
128.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 240; Davis 1975, pp. 93–94; Taylor 2016, p. 164.
129.
^ Taylor 2016, p. 165.
130.
^ Davis 1975, p. 136; Chernow 2010, p. 257.
131.
^ Alden 1996, p. 137; Taylor 2016, p. 165.
132.
^ Taylor 2016, pp. 166–167; McBurney 2016, p. 37; Farner 1996, p. 24; "Battle of Trenton" 1976, p. 9.
133.
^ Howat 1968, pp. 290, 293, 297; Nowlan 2014, p. 66.
134.
^ Fischer 2004, pp. 224–226; Taylor 2016.
135.
^ Taylor 2016, pp. 166–167, 169.
136.
^ Ketchum 1999, p. 235; Chernow 2010, p. 264.
137.
^ Taylor 2016, p. 169.
138.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 270–273.
139.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 272.
140.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 270–272; Randall 1997, p. 319.
141.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 273.
142.
^ Fischer 2004, p. 171; Taylor 2016, pp. 215–219.
143.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 273–274.
144.
^ Fischer 2004, pp. 228–230.
145.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 276; Ferling 2002, pp. 146–147; Fischer 2004, pp. 232–234, 405.
146.
^ Fischer 2004, p. 254.
147.
^ Ketchum 1999, pp. 306–307; Alden 1996, p. 146.
148.
^ Alden 1996, p. 145.
149.
^ Ketchum 1999, p. 361–364; Fischer 2004, p. 339; Chernow 2010, pp. 276–278.
150.
^ Jump up to:a b Taylor 2016, p. 172.
151.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 285–286.
152.
^ Fischer 2004, p. 151.
153.
^ Fischer 2004, p. 367.
154.
^ Ferling 2007, p. 188.
155.
^ Henderson 2009, p. 47.
156.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 300301.
157.
^ Randall 1997, pp. 340–341; Chernow 2010, pp. 301–304.
158.
^ Heydt 2005, pp. 50–73.
159.
^ Flexner 1965, p. 138; Randall 1997, p. 354–355.
160.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 312–313.
161.
^ Alden 1996, p. 163.
162.
^ Ferling 2007, p. 296.
163.
^ Ferling 2002, pp. 186; Alden 1996, pp. 165, 167; Freedman 2008, p. 30.
164.
^ Alden 1996, p. 165.
165.
^ Randall 1997, pp. 342, 359; Ferling 2009, p. 172.
166.
^ Alden 1996, p. 168; Randall 1997, pp. 342, 356.
167.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 336.
168.
^ Taylor 2016, p. 188; Randall 1997, p. 350.
169.
^ Alden 1996, pp. 176–77; Ferling 2002, pp. 195–198.
170.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 344.
172.
^ Rose 2006, p. 75, 224, 258–61.
173.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 378–387; Ward 1994.
174.
^ Adams 1928, pp. 365–366; Philbrick 2016, pp. 250–251; Ward 1994.
175.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 378, 380–381; Lengel 2005, p. 322; Adams 1928, p. 366; Philbrick 2016, pp. 280–282.
176.
^ Palmer 2010, p. 203; Flexner 1991, pp. 119–221; Rose 2006, p. 196; Taylor 2016, p. 206.
177.
^ Adams 1928, p. 365; Palmer 2010, pp. 306, 315, 319, 320.
178.
^ Van Doren 1941, pp. 194–195; Adams 1928, p. 366; Palmer 2010, p. 410.
179.
^ Palmer 2010, p. 370; Middlekauff 2015, p. 232.
180.
^ Palmer 2010, p. 371.
181.
^ Flexner 1991, p. 386; Rose 2006, p. 212.
182.
^ Taylor 2016, p. 230.
183.
^ Grizzard 2002, p. 303.
184.
^ Alden 1996, p. 184.
185.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 360.
188.
^ Jump up to:a b Taylor 2016, p. 234.
189.
^ Taylor 2016, pp. 234–235.
190.
^ Alden 1996, pp. 187–188.
191.
^ Lancaster & Plumb 1985, p. 311.
192.
^ Alden 1996, p. 197–199,206.
193.
^ Alden 1996, p. 193.
194.
^ Taylor 2016, p. 339.
195.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 403.
196.
^ Alden 1996, pp. 198–99; Chernow 2010, pp. 403–404.
197.
^ Alden 1996, pp. 198, 201; Chernow 2010, pp. 372–373, 418.
198.
^ Mann 2008, p. 38; Lancaster & Plumb 1985, p. 254; Chernow 2010, p. 419.
199.
^ Middlekauff 2015, p. 276.
200.
^ Alden 1996, pp. 201–02.
201.
^ Taylor 2016, pp. 313–315.
202.
^ Kohn 1970, pp. 187–220.
203.
^ Alden 1996, p. 209.
204.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 448.
205.
^ Washington 1783.
206.
^ Wright & MacGregor 1987, p. 27.
207.
^ Washington 1799, p. 343.
208.
^ Randall 1997, p. 405.
209.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 446, 448–449, 451; Puls 2008, pp. 184–186.
210.
^ Taylor 2016, p. 319.
211.
^ Alden 1996, p. 210; Chernow 2010, p. 451–452, 455.
212.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 454–455.
213.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 454; Taylor 2016, pp. 319–320.
214.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 444.
215.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 444, 461, 498; Ferling 2009, p. xx; Parsons 1898, p. 96; Brumwell 2012, p. 412.
216.
^ Randall 1997, pp. 408–410; Flexner 1974, pp. 180–182; Cooke 2002, pp. 2-3.
217.
^ Randall 1997, p. 410; Flexner 1974, p. 182–183; Dalzell 1998, p. 112.
218.
^ Flexner 1974, p. 183.
219.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 462-463.
220.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 472-473.
221.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 521.
222.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 464-465; Flexner 1974, p. 183.
223.
^ Chernow, 2010 & Bell 1992, pp. 52,
66.
224.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 479.
225.
^ Ferling 2009, pp. 251–255; Flexner 1974, p. 196; Chernow.
226.
^ Ferling 2009, pp. 251–255; Flexner 1974, p. 196; Chernow, pp. 479-480.
228.
^ Cooke 2002, pp. 3-4; Chernow 2010, p. 518.
229.
^ Cooke 2002, pp. 3-4.
230.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 517-519.
231.
^ Taylor 2016, pp. 373-374; Ferling 2009, p. 266.
232.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 523; Taylor 2016, pp. 373-374.
233.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 220-221; Ferling 2009, p. 266.
234.
^ Ferling 2009, p. 266; Chernow 2010, pp. 218, 220-224, 520–526.
235.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 520-521, 523, 526,
529; Unger 2013, p. 33.
236.
^ Elliot 1830, pp. 25–36.
237.
^ Ferling 2009, p. 266.
238.
^ Alden 1996, p. 221.
239.
^ Ellis 2007, pp. 91–92.
240.
^ Ferling 2010, p. 359–360.
241.
^ Alden 1996, pp. 226–27; Lodge 1889, pp. 34–35.
242.
^ Alden 1996, p. 229.
243.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 545–546.
244.
^ Alden 1996, pp. 226–27.
245.
^ Jensen 1948, pp. 178–179; Unger 2013, pp. 61, 146.
246.
^ Jillson & Wilson 1994, p. 77.
247.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 559–560; Ferling 2009, p. 361.
248.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 551.
249.
^ Ferling 2009, p. 274.
250.
^ Ferling 2009, pp. 274–275; Chernow 2010, pp. 559–561.
251.
^ Cooke 2002, p. 4; Chernow 2010, pp. 550–551; Fitzpatrick 1936, p. 522.
252.
^ Irving 1857, p. 475; Alden 1996, p. 236.
253.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 566–567; Randall 1997, p. 448.
254.
^ Cooke 2002, p. 4; Chernow 2010, p. 568.
255.
^ Randall 1997, p. 448; Alden 1996, p. 236.
256.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 552; Fitzpatrick 1936, v. 19, p. 522.
257.
^ Unger 2013, p. 76.
258.
^ Bassett 1906, p. 155.
259.
^ Unger 2013, pp. 236–37.
260.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 674–675.
261.
^ Ellis 2004, pp. 197–98; Unger 2013, pp. 236–37.
262.
^ Genovese 2009, p. 589; Unger 2013, pp. 236–37.
263.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 696–698; Randall 1997, p. 478.
264.
^ Jump up to:a b c Cooke 2002, p. 5.
265.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 575.
266.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 514.
267.
^ Ferling 2009, pp. 281–282; Cooke 2002, p. 4–5.
268.
^ Cooke 2002, p. 5; Banning 1974, p. 5.
269.
^ Elkins & McKitrick 1995, p. 290.
270.
^ Jump up to:a b Cooke 2002, p. 7.
271.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 585, 609; Henriques 2006, p. 65; Novak 2007, pp. 144–146.
272.
^ Banning 1974, pp. 5-7.
273.
^ Cooke 2002, pp. 7–8.
274.
^ Cooke 2002, p. 8.
275.
^ Sobel 1968, p. 27.
276.
^ Banning 1974, p. 9; Sobel 1968, p. 30.
277.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 673–674.
278.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 515, 627–630,
648–650; Randall 1997, pp. 452, 463, 468–471.
279.
^ Jump up to:a b Banning 1974, p. 8; Cooke 2002, p. 9.
280.
^ Cooke 2002, p. 9; Fitzpatrick 1936, v. 19, p. 523.
281.
^ Elkins & McKitrick 1995, pp. 240,
285, 290, 361.
282.
^ Cooke 2002, p. 9; Chernow 2005, p. 427.
283.
^ Ferling 2013, pp. 222, 283–284, 301–302.
284.
^ Ferling 2013, pp. 301–302.
285.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 719–721; Puls 2008, p. 219.
286.
^ Coakley 1996, pp. 43–49.
287.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 721; Kohn 1972, pp. 567–84.
289.
^ Ellis 2004, p. 225–226.
290.
^ Elkins & McKitrick 1995, pp. 335–54.
291.
^ "Honorary French Citizenship". George
Washington's Mount Vernon. Retrieved 2019-02-01.
292.
^ Elkins & McKitrick 1995, ch. 9.
293.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 730.
294.
^ Ferling 2009, p. 340.
295.
^ Estes 2000, pp. 393–422; Estes 2001, pp. 127–58.
296.
^ Ferling 2009, p. 344.
297.
^ Ferling 2009, p. 343.
298.
^ Grizzard 2005, p. 263; Lengel 2005, p. 357.
299.
^ Akers 2002, p. 27.
300.
^ Fitzpatrick 1936; Cooke 2002.
301.
^ Jump up to:a b Waldman & Braun 2009, p. 149.
302.
^ Jump up to:a b Harless 2018.
303.
^ Calloway 2018, p. 2.
304.
^ Jump up to:a b Flexner 1969, p. 304; Taylor 2016, p. 406.
305.
^ Jump up to:a b Cooke 2002, p. 10.
306.
^ Grizzard 2002, pp. 256-257; Puls 2008, pp. 207-208.
307.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 667–678; Gaff 2004, pp. xvii.
308.
^ Gaff 2004, pp. 3–6; Ferling 2009, p. 340.
309.
^ Cooke 2002, p. 10; Chernow 2010, p. 668.
310.
^ Taylor 2016, p. 406; Chernow 2010, p. 668.
311.
^ Cooke 2002, p. 14; Taylor 2016, p. 406.
312.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 687.
313.
^ Ferling 2009, pp. 299, 304, 308–311.
314.
^ Banning 1974, p. 2.
315.
^ Randall 1997, pp. 491–492; Chernow 2010, pp. 752–754.
316.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 758.
317.
^ Bassett 1906, pp. 187–189.
318.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 726–727.
319.
^ Korzi 2011, p. 43; Peabody 2001, pp. 439-453.
320.
^ Flexner 1972, p. 292; Chernow 2010, pp. 752–753.
321.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 754.
322.
^ Randall 1997, p. 492.
323.
^ Fishman, Pederson & Rozell 2001,
pp. 119–120; Gregg & Spalding 1999, pp. 199–216.
324.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 133.
325.
^ Randall 1997, p. 492; Cooke 2002, pp. 18-19.
326.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 764–765.
327.
^ Akers 2002, p. 25.
328.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 752–754.
329.
^ Boller 1963, p. 47.
330.
^ Avlon 2017, p. 280.
331.
^ Breen & White 2006, pp. 209–20.
332.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 53.
333.
^ Ellis 2004, pp. 255–61.
334.
^ Flexner 1974, p. 386.
335.
^ Randall 1997, p. 497.
337.
^ Fitzpatrick 1936, p. 474, vol. 36.
338.
^ Kohn 1975, pp. 225–42; Grizzard 2005, p. 264.
339.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 708.
340.
^ Dalzell 1998, p. 219.
341.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 704–705.
342.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 806–10; Morens 1999, pp. 1845-1849.
343.
^ "Death Defied".
344.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 806–807; Lear 1799, p. 257.
345.
^ Jump up to:a b Chernow 2010, pp. 806–10; Felisati & Sperati 2005, pp. 55–58.
346.
^ Ellis 2004, p. 269.
347.
^ Ferling 2009, p. 365.
348.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 808.
349.
^ Irving 1857, pp. 372-373.
350.
^ Irving 1857, p. 359.
351.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 808–810.
352.
^ Irving 1857, p. 374–375.
353.
^ Jump up to:a b Chernow 2010, pp. 810–811.
354.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 814.
355.
^ Newton, Freeman & Bickley 1858,
pp. 273–274.
356.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 809.
357.
^ Wallenborn 1999.
358.
^ Morens 1999, pp. 1845-1849.
359.
^ Cheatham 2008.
360.
^ Vadakan 2005.
361.
^ Craughwell 2009, pp. 77–79.
362.
^ Jump up to:a b Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, New Tomb
363.
^ Boorstin 2010, pp. 349–50.
364.
^ Strickland 1840, pp. 11–14; Carlson, 2016, chapter 1.
365.
^ Strickland 1840, pp. 11–14.
366.
^ Ferling 2002, p. 16; Randall 1997, pp. 34, 436; Chernow 2010, pp. 29–30.
367.
^ Ferling 2002, p. 16.
368.
^ Ferling 2002, p. 16; Chernow 2010, pp. 29–30.
369.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 123-125.
370.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 30.
371.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 30, 290, 437–439,
642–643.
372.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 642–643.
373.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 124, 469.
374.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 124.
375.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 469.
376.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 134.
377.
^ Ferling 2002, pp. 163–164; Hirschfeld 1997, p. 2; Flexner 1974, p. 386.
378.
^ Jump up to:a b c Schenawolf 2015.
379.
^ Taylor 2016, p. 231.
380.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 44-45.
381.
^ Wiencek 2003, pp. 319, 348–349; Flexner 1974, p. 386; Hirschfeld 1997, p. 2; Ellis 2004, p. 167.
382.
^ Stewart 2007, p. 257; Ferling 2002, p. 275-276.
383.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 536-537.
384.
^ Ferling 2002, p. 46; Chernow 2010, p. 640; Slave Control (Mount Vernon Ladies' Association Essay).
385.
^ Jump up to:a b Chernow 2010, pp. 637, 759–762.
386.
^ Jump up to:a b "Ten Facts Washington & Slavery".
387.
^ Hirschfeld 1997, pp. 5,6.
388.
^ http://www.revolutionarywarjournal.com/george-washington-slavery/#_edn7
389.
^ Fitzpatrick, John
C. The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript
Sources in Thirty-nine Volumes. 1940(United States Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC), Vol. 2, pg. 437.
390.
^ Wiencek 2003; Ferling 2002, p. 46; Chernow 2010, pp. 113–114, 117.
391.
^ Jump up to:a b c http://www.revolutionarywarjournal.com/george-washington-slavery/
392.
^ Ford,
Worthington. The Writings of George Washington(Putnam’s Sons, New
York), Vol. 2, pg. 211.
393.
^ Slave Control (Mount Vernon Ladies' Association Essay).
394.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 111; Ferling 2002, p. 46; Schwarz 2001, pp. 27, 83; Slave Labor (Mount Vernon Ladies' Association Essay).
395.
^ Ford, True
Washington, pp. 144-7.
396.
^ Jump up to:a b Ferling 2002, p. 277.
397.
^ Wiencek 2003, pp. 352–354.
398.
^ Jump up to:a b Tsakiridis 2018.
399.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 6; Morrison 2009, p. 136; Alden 1996, p. 2, 26; Randall 1997, p. 17; Tsakiridis 2018.
400.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 130; Thompson 2008, p. 40; Tsakiridis 2018.
401.
^ Frazer 2012, pp. 198–199; Chernow 2010, p. 119, 132; Tsakiridis 2018.
402.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 131, 470; Johnstone 1919, pp. 87–195; Espinosa 2009, p. 52; Frazer 2012, pp. 201–203; Tsakiridis 2018.
403.
^ Randall 1997, p. 67; Tsakiridis 2018.
404.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 131; Tsakiridis 2018.
405.
^ Washington 1788.
406.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 131–132.
407.
^ Novak 2007, p. 95; Tsakiridis 2018.
408.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 131–132; Morrison 2009, p. 136; Tsakiridis 2018.
409.
^ Frazer 2012, pp. 197–198, 201–203; Novak 2007, pp. 158–161.
410.
^ Boller 1963, p. 125.
411.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 131.
412.
^ Jump up to:a b Wood 2001, p. 313.
413.
^ Lillback & Newcombe 2006, p. 313–314.
414.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 132, 500; Morrison 2009, p. 136; Stavish 2007, pp. XIX, XXI; Immekus 2018.
415.
^ Chernow 2010, pp. 27, 704.
416.
^ Randall 1997, p. 67; Chernow 2010, p. 27.
417.
^ Immekus 2018.
418.
^ "A Brief History" (GWMNMA).
419.
^ Ferling 2009, pp. 3–4.
420.
^ Unger 2013, pp. 236–37; Parry & Allison 1991, p. xi; Hindle 2017, p. 92.
421.
^ Lightner & Reeder 1953, p. 133.
422.
^ Ferling 2009, p. 4.
423.
^ Fischer 2004, p. 446.
424.
^ Cunliffe 1958, pp. 24–26.
425.
^ Willard 2017.
428.
^ "Five-star Generals, 2017".
429.
^ Delbanco 1999.
430.
^ Jump up to:a b Levy 2013, pp. 6, 217; Weems 1918, p. 22.
432.
^ Chernow 2010, p. 547.
433.
^ Sparks 1839, p. Title page.
434.
^ Fitzpatrick 2016.
435.
^ Lengel 2011.
436.
^ "Washington".
437.
^ Shapiro 2006.
Bibliography
For a selected list of
published works treating Washington, see Bibliography
of George Washington.
Print sources
·
Adams, Randolph Greenfield (1928). Allen
Johnson, ed. Arnold, Benedict. Dictionary
of American Biography. Scribner.
·
Akers, Charles W. (2002). "John
Adams". In Graff, Henry. The Presidents: A Reference History (3
ed.). Scribner. pp. 23–38. ISBN 978-0-684-31226-2.
·
Alden, John R. (1996). George Washington, a Biography. Louisiana
State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-2126-9.
·
Anderson, Fred (2007). Crucible
of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America,
1754–1766. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-3074-2539-3.
·
Avlon, John (2017). Washington's Farewell: The Founding Father's Warning to
Future Generations. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4767-4646-3.
·
Banning, Lance (1974). Woodward C. Vann, ed. Responses of the
Presidents to Charges of Misconduct. Delacorte Press. ISBN 978-0-440-05923-3.
·
Bassett, John Spencer (1906). The
Federalist System, 1789–1801. Harper & Brothers. OCLC 586531.
·
"The
Battle of Trenton". The National Guardsman. Vol. 31.
National Guard Association of the United States. 1976.
·
Bell, William Gardner (1992) [1983]. Commanding
Generals and Chiefs of Staff, 1775–2005: Portraits & Biographical Sketches
of the United States Army's Senior Officer. Center of Military
History, United States Army. ISBN 978-0-1603-5912-5.
CMH Pub 70–14.
·
Boller, Paul F. (1963). George
Washington & Religion. Southern Methodist University
Press. OCLC 563800860.
·
Boorstin, Daniel J. (2010). The
Americans: The National Experience. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-3077-5647-3.
·
Breen, Eleanor E.; White, Esther C.
(2006). "A Pretty Considerable Distillery: Excavating George
Washington's Whiskey Distillery"(PDF). Quarterly Bulletin
of the Archeological Society of Virginia. 61(4): 209–20. Archived
from the original (PDF) on December 24,
2011.
·
Brown, Richard D. (1976). "The
Founding Fathers of 1776 and 1787: A Collective View". The
William and Mary Quarterly. JSTOR. 33 (3): 465–480.
·
Brumwell, Stephen (2012). George
Washington, Gentleman Warrior. Quercus Publishers. ISBN 978-1-8491-6546-4.
·
Calloway, Colin G. (2018). The Indian World of George Washington. The First
President, the First Americans, and the Birth of the Nation. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-1906-5216-6.
·
Carlson, Brady (2016). Dead Presidents: An American Adventure into the Strange
Deaths and Surprising Afterlives of Our Nations Leaders. W.W. Norton
& Company. ISBN 978-0-3932-4394-9.
·
Cheatham, ML (August 2008). "The death
of George Washington: an end to the controversy?". American
Surgery. 74 (8): 770–4. PMID 18705585.
·
Chernow, Ron (2005). Alexander Hamilton. Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-1012-0085-8.
·
—— (2010). Washington: A Life. Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-59420-266-7.
·
Coakley, Robert W. (1996) [1989]. The Role of Federal Military Forces in Domestic
Disorders, 1789–1878. DIANE Publishing. pp. 43–49. ISBN 978-0-7881-2818-9.
·
Cooke, Jacob E. (2002). "George
Washington". In Graff, Henry. The Presidents: A Reference
History (3 ed.). Scribner. pp. 1–21. ISBN 978-0-684-31226-2.
·
Craughwell, Thomas J. (2009). Stealing Lincoln's Body. Harvard University
Press. pp. 77–79. ISBN 978-0-67402-458-8.
·
Cunliffe, Marcus (1958). George
Washington, Man and Monument. Little, Brown. OCLC 564093853.
·
Dalzell, Robert F., Jr. & Lee Baldwin
(1998). George Washington's Mount Vernon: At Home in
Revolutionary America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512114-8.
·
Davis, Burke (1975). George
Washington and the American Revolution. Random House. ISBN 978-0-3944-6388-9.
·
Delbanco, Andrew (1999). "Bookend; Life, Literature and the Pursuit of
Happiness". The New York Times.
·
Elkins, Stanley M.; McKitrick, Eric (1995)
[1993]. The Age of Federalism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509381-0.
·
Ellis, Joseph J. (2004). His
Excellency: George Washington. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-4000-4031-5.
·
Elliot, Jonathan (1830). The Debates, Resolutions, and Other Proceedings, in
Convention, on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution: Supplementary to the
state Conventions. Published by or.
·
—— (2007). American Creation. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 9780307276452.
·
Espinosa, Gastón (2009). Religion and
the American Presidency: George Washington to George W. Bush with Commentary
and Primary Sources. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-14332-5.
·
Estes, Todd (2000). "Shaping the
Politics of Public Opinion: Federalists and the Jay Treaty Debate". Journal of
the Early Republic. 20 (3): 393–422. doi:10.2307/3125063. JSTOR 3125063.
·
—— (2001). "The Art of Presidential
Leadership: George Washington and the Jay Treaty". The Virginia
Magazine of History and Biography. 109 (2): 127–158. JSTOR 4249911.
·
Farner, Thomas P. (1996). New
Jersey in History: Fighting to Be Heard. Down the Shore
Publishing. ISBN 9780945582380.
·
Felisati, D; Sperati, G (February
2005). "George Washington (1732–1799)". Acta
Otorhinolaryngologica Italica. 25 (1): 55–58. PMC 2639854. PMID 16080317.
·
Ferling, John E. (2002). Setting the World Ablaze: Washington, Adams, Jefferson,
and the American Revolution. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513409-4.
·
—— (2007). Almost
a Miracle. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1997-5847-0.
·
—— (2009). The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political
Genius of an American Icon. Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-1-6081-9182-6.
·
—— (2010) [1988]. First of Men: A Life of George Washington.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539867-0.
·
—— (2013). Jefferson
and Hamilton: the rivalry that forged a nation. Bloomsbury
Press. ISBN 978-1608195428.
·
Fischer, David
Hackett (2004). Washington's
Crossing. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1951-7034-4.
·
Fishman, Ethan M.; Pederson, William D.;
Rozell, Mark J. (2001). George Washington: Foundation of Presidential Leadership
and Character. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780275968687.
·
Fitzpatrick, John C. (1936). "Washington, George". In Dumas
Malone. Dictionary
of American Biography. 19. Scribner. pp. 509–527.
·
Flexner, James Thomas (1965). George
Washington: the Forge of Experience, (1732–1775). Little,
Brown. OCLC 426484.
·
—— (1969). George
Washington and the New Nation (1783–1793). Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-3162-8600-8.
·
—— (1972). George
Washington: Anguish and Farewell (1793–1799). Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-3162-8602-2.
·
—— (1974). Washington:
The Indispensable Man. Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-316-28605-3.
·
—— (1991). The
Traitor and the Spy: Benedict Arnold and John André. Syracuse
University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-0263-7.
·
Frazer, Gregg L. (2012). The Religious
Beliefs of America's Founders Reason, Revelation, and Revolution. University
Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1845-3.
·
Freeman, Douglas
Southall (1948). George Washington, a Biography. v.7.
Scribner. OCLC 732644234.
·
Ford, Worthington Chauncey; Hunt, Gaillard;
Fitzpatrick, John Clement (1904). Journals
of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789: 1774. 1. U.S.
Government Printing Office.
·
Freedman, Russell (2008). Washington
at Valley Forge. Holiday House. ISBN 978-0-8234-2069-8.
·
Freeman, Douglas Southall (1968). Harwell,
Richard Barksdale, ed. Washington. Scribner. OCLC 426557.
·
Gaff, Alan D. (2004). Bayonets
in the Wilderness: Anthony Wayne's Legion in the Old Northwest.
University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3585-4.
·
Gregg, Gary L., II; Spalding, Matthew, eds.
(1999). Patriot Sage: George Washington and the American Political
Tradition. ISI Books. ISBN 978-1-882926-38-1.
·
Grizzard, Frank E.,
Jr. (2002). George Washington: A Biographical Companion.
ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-082-6.
·
—— (2005). George!: A Guide to All
Things Washington. Mariner Pub. ISBN 978-0-9768-2388-9.
·
Henderson, Donald (2009). Smallpox:
The Death of a Disease. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-5910-2722-5.
·
Henriques, Peter R. (2006). Realistic Visionary: A Portrait of George Washington.
University Press of Virginia. ISBN 978-0-8139-2741-1.
·
Heydt, Bruce (2005). "'Vexatious
Evils': George Washington and the Conway Cabal". American
History. 40 (5).
·
Higginbotham, Don (1971). The
War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice,
1763–1789. Macmillan. ISBN 9780253289100. OCLC 142627.
·
—— (1985). George
Washington and the American Military Tradition. University of
Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-8203-0786-2.
·
—— (2001). George
Washington Reconsidered. University Press of Virginia. ISBN 978-0-8139-2005-4.
·
Hindle, Brooke (2017) [1964]. David Rittenhouse. Princeton University Press.
p. 92. ISBN 978-1-400-88678-4.
·
Hirschfeld, Fritz (1997). George Washington and Slavery: A Documentary Portrayal.
University of Missouri Press. ISBN 978-0-8262-1135-4.
·
Hofstra, Warren R. (1998). George
Washington and the Virginia Backcountry. Madison House. ISBN 978-0-945612-50-6.
·
Hughes, Rupert (1926). George
Washington. W. Morrow & Co. OCLC 17399028.
·
Isaacson, Walter (2003). Benjamin
Franklin, an American Life. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9780743260848.
·
Irving, Washington (1857). Life of George Washington, Vol. 5. G. P.
Putnam and Son.
·
Jensen, Merrill (1948). The Articles
of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the
American Revolution, 1774–1781. University of Wisconsin Press. OCLC 498124.
·
Jillson, Calvin C.; Wilson, Rick K.
(1994). Congressional Dynamics: Structure, Coordination, and Choice in the
First American Congress, 1774–1789. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2293-3.
·
Johnstone, William (1919). George Washington, the Christian. The Abingdon
Press. OCLC 19524242.
·
Jones, Colin;
Wahrman, Dror (2002). The
Age of Cultural Revolutions: Britain and France, 1750–1820.
University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22966-2.
·
Genovese, Michael A. (2009). Michael Kazin,
ed. The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History.
(Two volume set). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1400833566.
·
Ketchum, Richard M. (1999) [1973]. The
Winter Soldiers: The Battles for Trenton and Princeton. Henry
Holt. ISBN 978-0-8050-6098-0.
·
Kohn, Richard H. (April 1970). "The
Inside History of the Newburgh Conspiracy: America and the Coup
d'Etat". The William and Mary Quarterly. 27 (2):
187–220. doi:10.2307/1918650. JSTOR 1918650.
·
—— (1975). Eagle
and Sword: The Federalists and the Creation of the Military Establishment in
America, 1783–1802. Free Press. pp. 225–42. ISBN 978-0-02-917551-4.
·
—— (1972). "The Washington Administration's Decision to Crush
the Whiskey Rebellion" (PDF). The Journal
of American History. 59 (3): 567–84. doi:10.2307/1900658. JSTOR 1900658.
Archived from the original (PDF) on September 24,
2015.
·
Korzi, Michael J. (2011). Presidential Term Limits in American History: Power,
Principles, and Politics. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1-60344-231-2.
·
Lancaster, Bruce; Plumb, John H. (1985). The
American Revolution. American Heritage Press. ISBN 978-0-8281-0281-0,
heavily illustrated.
·
Lear, Tobias (December 15, 1799), "Tobias Lear to William Augustine Washington",
in Ford, Worthington Chauncey, The Writings of George Washington, 14,
G. Putnam & Sons (published 1893), p. 257
·
Leduc, Gilbert-Francis (1943). Washington
and "The Murder of Jumonville". La Société historique
franco-américaine.
·
Lengel, Edward G. (2005). General George Washington: A Military Life.
Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6081-8.
·
Levy, Philip (2013). Where the Cherry Tree Grew, The Story of Ferry Farm,
George Washington's Boyhood Home. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-2500-2314-8.
·
Lightner, Otto C.; Reeder, Pearl Ann, eds.
(1953). Hobbies, Volume 58. Lightner Publishing
Company. p. 133.
·
Lillback, Peter A.; Newcombe, Jerry
(2006). George Washington's Sacred Fire. ISBN 9780984765423.
·
Lodge, Henry Cabot (1889). George
Washington, Volume 2. Houghton, Mifflin.
·
Mann, Barbara Alice (2008). George
Washington's War on Native America. University of Nevada Press.
p. 106. ISBN 978-0-8032-1635-8.
·
McBurney, Christian (2016). Abductions
in the American Revolution: Attempts to Kidnap George Washington, Benedict
Arnold and Other Military and Civilian Leaders. McFarland &
Company, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4766-6364-7.
·
McCullough, David (2005). 1776.
Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2671-4.
·
Middlekauff, Robert (2015). Washington's
Revolution: The Making of America's First Leader, The revolution from General
Washington's perspective. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-1018-7424-0.
·
Misencik, Paul R. (2014). George
Washington and the Half-King Chief Tanacharison: An Alliance That Began the
French and Indian War. McFarland. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-4766-1540-0.
·
Morens, David M. (December 1999).
"Death of a President". New England Journal of Medicine. 341 (24):
1845–1849.
·
Morrison, Jeffery H. (2009). The Political Philosophy of George Washington.
JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-9109-0.
·
Nagy, John A. (2016). George
Washington's Secret Spy War: The Making of America's First Spymaster.
St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1-2500-9682-1.
·
Newton, R.S.; Freeman, Z.; Bickley, G.,
eds. (1858). "The Eclectic Medical Journal, Volume 17":
273.
·
Novak, Michael & Jana (2007). Washington's
God: Religion, Liberty, and the Father of Our Country. Basic
Books. ISBN 978-0-7867-2216-7.
·
Nowlan, Robert A. (2014). The American Presidents, Washington to Tyler What They
Did, What They Said, What Was Said Them, with Full Source Notes.
McFarland. ISBN 978-1-4766-0118-2.
·
Palmer, Dave Richard (2010). George Washington and Benedict Arnold: A Tale of Two
Patriots. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-5969-8164-5.
·
Parry, Jay A.; Allison, Andrew M.
(1991). The Real George Washington: The True Story of America's
Most Indispensable Man. National Center for Constitutional
Studies. ISBN 978-0-8808-0013-6.
·
Parsons, Eugene (1898). George
Washington: A Character Sketch. H. G. Campbell publishing Company.
·
Peabody, Bruce G. (September 1, 2001).
"George Washington, Presidential Term Limits, and the Problem of Reluctant
Political Leadership". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 31 (3):
439–453. JSTOR 27552322.
·
Philbrick, Nathaniel (2016). Valiant
Ambition: George Washington, Benedict Arnold, and the Fate of the American
Revolution. Penguin Books. ISBN 9780143110194.
·
Puls, Mark (2008). Henry Knox: Visionary General of the American Revolution.
St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-2306-1142-9.
·
Randall, Willard
Sterne (1997). George
Washington: A Life. Henry Holt & Co. ISBN 978-0-8050-2779-2.
·
Rasmussen, William M. S.; Tilton, Robert S.
(1999). George Washington-the Man Behind the Myths.
University Press of Virginia. ISBN 978-0-8139-1900-3.
·
Rose, Alexander (2006). Washington's
Spies: The Story of America's First Spy Ring. Random House Publishing
Group. ISBN 978-0-553-80421-8.
·
Schwarz, Philip J. (2001). Slavery at the home of George Washington.
Mount Vernon Ladies' Association.
·
Sparks, Jared (1839). The Life of George Washington. F. Andrews.
·
Sobel, Robert (1968). Panic on Wall
Street: A History of America's Financial Disasters. Beard Books. ISBN 978-1-893122-46-8.
·
Stavish, Mark (2007). Freemasonry:
Rituals, Symbols & History of the Secret Society. Llewellyn
Publications. ISBN 978-0-7387-1148-5.
·
Stewart, David O. (2007). The
Summer of 1787. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-8692-3.
·
Strickland, William (1840). The Tomb of Washington at Mount Vernon. Carey
& Hart.
·
Taylor, Alan (2016). American
Revolutions A Continental History, 1750–1804. W.W. Norton &
Company. ISBN 978-0-393-35476-8.
·
Thompson, Mary (2008). In The Hands
of a Good Providence. University Press of Virginia.
p. 40. ISBN 978-0-8139-2763-3.
·
Unger, Harlow Giles (2013). "Mr. President" George Washington and the
Making of the Nation's Highest Office. Da Capo Press, A Member of
the Perseus Book Group. ISBN 978-0-306-82241-4.
·
Vadakan, Vibul V. (Winter–Spring 2005). "A Physician Looks At The Death of Washington". The
Early America Review. 6 (1). ISSN 1090-4247.
Archived from the original on December 16, 2005.
·
Van Doren, Carl (1941). Secret history of the American Revolution : an
account of the conspiracies of Benedict Arnold and numerous others.
Garden City Pub. Co.
·
Waldman, Carl; Braun, Molly
(2009). Atlas of the North American Indian (3 ed.). Facts On File,
Inc. ISBN 978-0-8160-6859-3.
·
Weems, Mason Locke (1810). A
History of the Life and Death, Virtues and Exploits of General George
Washington. J. B. Lippincott.
·
Wiencek, Henry (2003). An
Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America.
Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-17526-9.
·
Wood, Gordon S. (1992). The Radicalism of the American Revolution.
Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-40493-4.
·
—— (2001). Don Higginbotham, ed. George
Washington Reconsidered. University Press of Virginia. ISBN 978-0-8139-2005-4.
·
Wright, Robert K.; MacGregor, Morris J.
(1987). "The Articles of Confederation". Soldier-statesmen
of the Constitution. U.S. Army Center of Military History (U.S. Government).
p. 27.
Primary
sources
·
Elliot, Jonathan (1827). The
Debates, Resolutions, and Other Proceedings, in Convention, on the Adoption of
the Federal Constitution: "Containing the debates in Massachusetts and New
York". Jonathan Elliot.
·
Lengel, Edward G., ed. (2011). "The Papers of George Washington". The
Papers of George Washington: Digital ion. University Press of Virginia.
Retrieved March 7, 2011.
·
Fitzpatrick, John C., ed.
(1931). Writings of George Washington (39 Vols). U.S. Govt. Print Off.
·
Fitzpatrick, John, ed. (2016)
[1931–1944]. The Writings of George Washington from the original
manuscript sources, 1745–1799. U.S. Govt. Print. Off.
Retrieved March 7, 2011 – via Hathi Trust Digital Library.
·
Washington, George (1799). "Letter to Continental Army, November 2, 1783,
Farewell Orders; Letter to Henry Knox, November 2, 1783". George
Washington Papers, 1741–1799: Series 3b Varick Transcripts. Library of
Congress. Archived from the original on August 21, 2013.
Retrieved November 13, 2011.
·
Washington, George (1783). "Sentiments on a Peace Establishment".
National Historical Publications and Records Commission (The U.S. National
Archives and Records Administration). Retrieved July 20, 2018.
·
Washington, George (1788). "Letter to Richard Peters, September 7, 1788".
National Historical Publications and Records Commission (The U.S. National
Archives and Records Administration). Retrieved February 11, 2019.
·
Weems, Mason Locke (1918). A history of the life and death, virtues and exploits of
General George Washington : with curious anecdotes equally honourable to
himself and exemplary to his young countrymen. J.B. Lippincott.
Online
sources
·
"A
Brief History". The George Washington Masonic National Memorial
Association (GWMNMA).
·
"George Washington's Professional Surveys".
U.S. National Archives. 2016. Retrieved June 27, 2016.
·
Engber, Daniel (January 18, 2006). "What's
Benjamin Franklin's Birthday?". Slate.
·
Harless, Richard (2018). "Native American Policy". mountvernon.org.
Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Retrieved October 26, 2018.
·
"How
Many U.S. Army Five-star Generals Have There Been and Who Were They?".
U.S. Army Center of Military History. 2017. Retrieved November 1, 2018.
·
Howat, John K. (March 1968). "Washington Crossing the Delaware" (PDF). 26 (7).
The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin: 289–299. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-06-13.
·
Immekus, Alexander (2018). "Freemasonry". George
Washington's Mount Vernon. Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Retrieved September
7, 2018.
·
Knott, Stephen (2005). "Life Before the Presidency". Miller
Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Archived
from the originalon November 28, 2011.
Retrieved November 12, 2011.
·
Pogue, Dennis J. (January 2004). Shad, Wheat, and Rye (Whiskey): George Washington,
Entrepreneur (PDF). The Society for
Historical Archaeology Annual Meeting. George Washington's Mount Vernon.
Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 24,
2011.
·
"Religion and the Founding of the American Republic".
Library of Congress. 2011. Retrieved July 20, 2018.
·
Schenawolf, Harry (September 15,
2015). "George Washington Never Set a Single Slave Free in
His Lifetime! The Legacy of His Silent Condemnation of Slavery".
Revolutionary War Journal. Retrieved August 24, 2018.
·
Shapiro, Jeff (May 16, 2006). "1-cent
Washington". Arago News/Online Database of the National
Postal Museum. Smithsonian Institution/National Postal Museum. Retrieved November
29, 2018.
·
"Slave Control". George
Washington's Mount Vernon. Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Retrieved August
10, 2018.
·
"Slave Labor". George
Washington's Mount Vernon. Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Retrieved July
1, 2018.
·
"Surveying". George
Washington's Mount Vernon. Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Retrieved June
13, 2016.
·
"Ten Facts Washington & Slavery". George
Washington's Mount Vernon. Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Retrieved July
20, 2018.
·
Thompson, Mary V. "Death Defied". George
Washington's Mount Vernon. Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, Essay 3.
Retrieved October 14, 2018.
·
"The Tomb". George Washington's
Mount Vernon. Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Retrieved April 12, 2018.
·
Tsakiridis, George (2018). "George Washington and Religion". George
Washington's Mount Vernon. Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Retrieved September
15, 2018.
·
Wallenborn, White McKenzie, M.D.
(1999). "George Washington's Terminal Illness: A Modern
Medical Analysis of the Last Illness and Death of George Washington". The Papers
of George Washington. University of Virginia. Retrieved July
20, 2018.
·
Ward, Geoffrey C. (1994). "The Great Traitor". American
Heritage Magazine. Retrieved July 20, 2018.
·
"Washington". Worldatlas. Retrieved January
3, 2011.
·
"Where the Cherry Tree Grew: An Interview with
Phillip Levy". George Washington's Mount Vernon. Mount
Vernon Ladies' Association. Retrieved July 20, 2018.
·
Willard, Joseph (2017). "To George Washington from Joseph Willard, 28
February 1781". National
Archives and Records Administration. Archived from the original on February
21, 2017.
External links
|
Library
resources about |
George Washingtonat 's sister
projects
·
Definitions from
Wiktionary
·
Media from
media Commons
·
Quotations from
quote
·
Texts from
source
·
Textbooks from
books
·
Resources from
versity
·
Data from data
·
George Washington Resources at the University
of Virginia Library
·
Original Digitized Letters of George Washington Shapell
Manuscript Foundation
·
The
Papers of George Washington, subset of Founders
Online from the National
Archives
·
Copies of the wills of General George Washington: the
first president of the United States and of Martha Washington, his wife (1904),
ed by E. R. Holbrook
·
George Washington Personal Manuscripts
·
Washington
& the American Revolution, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Carol
Berkin, Simon Middleton & Colin Bonwick (In Our Time, June 24, 2004)
|
Military offices |
||
|
New creation |
Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army |
Succeeded by |
|
Preceded by |
Senior
Officer of the U.S. Army |
Succeeded by |
|
Political offices |
||
|
New office |
President
of the United States |
Succeeded by |
·
American
Revolutionary War portal
·
.svg){kind=small}
Government
of the United States portal
·
Military
of the United States portal
|
·
BNF: cb11928912p (data) ·
KulturNav: 255f3478-efee-4ff7-8d00-560e222e27b0 ·
NKC: jn19990008936 ·
WorldCat Identities (via
VIAF): 31432428 |
·
1789 United States presidential candidates
·
1792 United States presidential candidates
·
18th-century
American Episcopalians
·
18th-century American military personnel
·
18th-century
American politicians
·
18th-century
American writers
·
18th-century Presidents of the United States
·
American
foreign policy writers
·
American
male non-fiction writers
·
American military personnel of the Seven Years' War
·
American
people of Dutch descent
·
American
people of English descent
·
British
America army officers
·
Chancellors of the College of William & Mary
·
Commanding Generals of the United States Army
·
Congressional
Gold Medal recipients
·
Continental Army officers from Virginia
·
Continental
Congressmen from Virginia
·
Deaths
from respiratory disease
·
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
·
Freemason
United States Presidents
·
Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees
·
Members of the American Philosophical Society
·
People
from Mount Vernon, Virginia
·
People from Westmoreland County, Virginia
·
People
of the American Enlightenment
·
People of Virginia in the American Revolution
·
People of Virginia in the French and Indian War
·
Presidents
of the United States
·
Signers of the United States Constitution
·
United
States Army personnel
·
Virginia militiamen in the American Revolution
Navigation menu
·
Not logged in
·
Talk
·
Log in
·
Article
·
Talk
·
Read
Search
·
Contents
·
store
Interaction
·
Help
Tools
Print/export
In other projects
·
quote
·
source
Languages
·
Deutsch
·
Español
·
Français
·
한국어
·
Italiano
·
Русский
·
Tagalog
·
中文
161 more
·
This page was last
ed on 18 February 2019, at 20:40 (UTC).
·
Text is available
under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;
additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. ® is a registered
trademark of the media Foundation, Inc., a non-profit
organization.
·
Contact
·
·
