Peter
|
Apostle, pope, patriarch, and martyr
|
Saint Peter (c. 1468) by Marco Zoppo depicts
Peter as an old man holding the Keys of Heaven and a book representing
the gospel.
|
Church
|
Early Christian Great Church
|
See
|
·
First Bishop
of Rome (pope), according to Catholic tradition
·
First Bishop of Antioch(patriarch), according to Eastern Christian tradition
|
Installed
|
AD 30[1]
|
Term ended
|
between AD 64 and 68[2]
|
Successor
|
·
Bishop
of Rome: Linus
·
Bishop of Antioch: Evodius
|
Orders
|
Ordination
|
AD
33
by Jesus Christ
|
Personal
details
|
Birth
name
|
Shimon
(Simeon, Simon)
|
Born
|
c. AD 1
Bethsaida, Gaulanitis, Syria, Roman Empire
|
Died
|
between
AD 64 and 68 (aged 62–67)
Clementine Chapel, Vatican Hill, Rome, Italia, Roman Empire
|
Parents
|
John
(or Jonah; Jona)
|
Occupation
|
Fisherman, clergyman
|
Sainthood
|
Feast
day
|
·
Main
feast (with Paul the Apostle) 29 June (Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, Lutheranism)
·
Chair
of Saint Peter in Rome 18 January (pre-General Roman Calendar of 1960)
·
Confession
of Saint Peter 18 January (Anglicanism)
Chair of Saint Peter 22 February (Catholic Church)
·
Saint Peter in Chains 1 August
(pre-1960 Roman Calendar)
|
Venerated
in
|
All Christian denominations that
venerate saints, Islam
|
Canonized
|
Pre-Congregation
|
Attributes
|
Keys of Heaven, Red Martyr, pallium, papal vestments, rooster, man crucified upside down,
vested as an Apostle, holding a book or scroll, Cross of Saint Peter. Iconographically, he is depicted with
a bushy white beard and white hair.
|
Patronage
|
Patronage list
|
Shrines
|
St. Peter's Basilica
|
Saint
Peter (Syriac: ܫܸܡܥܘܿܢ ܟܹ݁ܐܦ݂ܵܐ, Šemʿōn Kēp̄ā; Hebrew: שמעון
בר יונה Šimʿōn
bar Yōnāh; Greek: Πέτρος, translit. Petros; Coptic: ⲡⲉⲧⲣⲟⲥ, translit. Petros; Latin: Petrus; r. AD 30;[1] was Crucified for a
second time {upside down} between AD 64 and 68),[2] also known as Simon
Peter, Simeon, Simon (/ˈsaɪmən/, pronunciation (help·info)), or Cephas, according to the New Testament, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ, leaders of the early Christian Great Church. Pope Gregory I called him
repeatedly the "Prince of the Apostles".[3] According to Catholic teaching, Jesus promised Peter
in the "Rock of My Church" aka stand on my
Ben Ben Stone. The Ben Ben
Stone itself has a long and complex history which began previous to the
invention of current translatable languages.
The
translation of Ben Ben well more specifically the man
standing on the Ben Ben Stone, well not really the
name of the man standing on the Ben Ben Stone, more
like the title/job description of the man standing on the Ben Ben Stone Holding onto (holding the foot, limb, appendage,
hand, arm, etc) the line extending from the Disk of
the ATEN that job description is Ptah. Ptah is the title/job of the person
standing on the Ben Ben Stone, creating the world
from.
All that evidence
and more point to the facts that Simon Peter is the Pharaoh/Ptah name Jesus
Chose for himself during the last supper. Which causes a huge
problem for the rest of the story since shortly after the crucifixion “Jesus
Rose to Heaven” after the Sermon on the Mount.
Paul hated Jesus
so much that all fo that was
edited to make Paul and his followers happy.
Although for the
first 5 to 10 years of the church, the facts remained correct.
It was only after
a decade post the Crusifixion that the war between
Paul and Peter began. The Senate in all ways clearly sided with Paul, they
sided with him so much that they allowed Paul’s people to openly kill and
torture any and all followers fo Jesus.
Vespatian did his own erasign fo histoyr
some 4 decades later. Conquering Jerusalme in levant lands, dismanting the
temple fo Zerubabel/Solmon and had it shipped
to Rome. Were it was reassembled into the Colisume,
so that the follwoers of Jessus
could be arrested, brought before the masses, and exuected
to the entertainmetn fo the crowd, and of course perform ritual human sacrafice to power the Roman Empire.
Simon Peter transltes as Ptah, which itself transltes as Pharoah.
the best translation of mathew is
“My Ptah name is Simon Peter” from the current “you will build your house
upon me”.
which of course goes directly into the infastructure
and superstruture of the Aerdology.
“Gods Plan”.
The
name Pharaoh derives directly from Ptah, which means the title Pope itself also
derives from Ptah. The first Pharaoh’s, and list of
Popes has the same origin.
dialogue in Matthew 16:18 a special position in the
Church. He is traditionally counted as the first Bishop of Rome—or pope—and
also by Eastern Christian tradition as the
first Patriarch of Antioch. The ancient
Christian churches all venerate Peter as a major saint and as the founder of
the Church of Antioch and the Roman Church,[2] but differ in their
attitudes regarding the authority of his present-day successors (the primacy of the Bishop of Rome).
The
New Testament indicates that Peter's father's name was John (or Jonah or Jona)[4] and was from the village
of Bethsaida in the province of Galilee or Gaulanitis. His brother Andrew was also an apostle. According to New Testament
accounts, Peter was one of twelve apostles chosen by Jesus from his first disciples. Originally a fisherman, he
played a leadership role and was with Jesus during events witnessed by only a
few apostles, such as the Transfiguration. According to the gospels, Peter confessed Jesus as the Messiah,[5] was part of Jesus's
inner circle,[6] thrice denied Jesus[7] and wept bitterly once
he realised his deed, and preached on the day of Pentecost.[8]
According
to Christian tradition, Peter was
crucified in Rome under Emperor Nero. It is traditionally held that he
was crucified upside down at his own request, since he saw himself unworthy to
be crucified in the same way as Jesus. Tradition holds that he was crucified at
the site of the Clementine Chapel. His remains are said
to be those contained in the underground Confessio of St. Peter's Basilica, where Pope Paul VI announced in 1968 the
excavated discovery of a first-century Roman cemetery. Every 29 June since 1736, a
statue of Saint Peter in St. Peter's Basilica is adorned with papal tiara, ring of the fisherman, and papal vestments, as part of the
celebration of the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul.
According to Catholic doctrine, the direct papal successor to Saint Peter is
the incumbent pope, currently Pope Francis.
Two general epistles in the New
Testament are ascribed to Peter, but modern scholars generally reject the Petrine authorship of both.[9] The Gospel of Mark was traditionally
thought to show the influence of Peter's preaching and eyewitness memories.
Several other books bearing his name—the Acts of Peter, Gospel of Peter, Preaching of Peter, Apocalypse of Peter, and Judgment of Peter—are
considered by Christian denominations as apocryphal, and are thus not included
in their Bible canons.[10][11][12]
Contents
·
1Names and etymologies
·
2New Testament account
o 2.1"Rock" dialogue
o 2.2Denial of Jesus by Peter
o 2.3Resurrection appearances
o 2.4Position among the apostles
o 2.5Role in the early church
·
3Connection to Rome
o 3.1Road to Rome: Antioch and Corinth
o 3.2Rome
o 3.3Death
o 3.4Status
o 3.5Burial and relics
o 3.6Epistles
·
4Religious interpretations
o 4.1Catholic Church
§ 4.1.1Matthew 16:18
§ 4.1.2Feast days
§ 4.1.3Meaning of Matthew 16:18
§ 4.1.4What did Peter begin?
o 4.2Eastern Orthodox
§ 4.2.1Feast days
o 4.3Syriac Orthodox Church
o 4.4New Apostolic Church
o 4.5Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
o 4.6Islam
o 4.7Bahá'í Faith
o 4.8Judaism
·
5Writings
o 5.1New Testament
§ 5.1.1Epistles
§ 5.1.2Mark
o 5.2Pseudepigrapha and apocrypha
o 5.3Non-canonical sayings of Peter
·
6Iconography
·
7Patronage
·
8Revisionist views
·
9In art
·
10See also
·
11Notes
·
12External links
Calling
of Peter and Andrew, 1603/1606, Caravaggio
Peter's
original name, as indicated in the New Testament, was "Simon" (Σίμων Simōn in Greek) or (only in Acts 15:14 and 2
Peter 1:1) "Simeon" (Συμεών
in Greek). The Simon/Simeon variation has been explained as reflecting
"the well-known custom among Jews at the time of giving the name of a
famous patriarch or personage of the Old Testament to a male child along with a
similar sounding Greek/Roman name".[13]
He
was later given the name כֵּיפָא (Kepha)
in Aramaic, which was rendered in Greek
(by transliteration and the addition of a final sigma to make it a masculine word)
as Κηφᾶς, whence Latin and English Cephas (9
occurrences in the New Testament);[14] or (by translation with
masculine termination) as Πέτρος,
whence Latin Petrus and English Peter(156
occurrences in the New Testament).[15]
The
precise meaning of the Aramaic word is disputed, some saying that its usual
meaning is "rock" or "crag", others saying that it means
rather "stone" and, particularly in its application by Jesus to
Simon, "precious stone" or "jewel", but most scholars agree
that as a proper name it denotes a rough or tough character.[16] Both meanings,
"stone" (jewel or hewn stone) and "rock", are indicated in
dictionaries of Aramaic[17] and Syriac.[18] Catholic theologian
Rudolf Pesch argues that the Aramaic cepha means "stone, ball, clump, clew" and that "rock" is only a connotation;
that in the Attic Greek petra denotes
"grown rock, rocky range, cliff, grotto"; and that petros means "small stone, firestone,
sling stone, moving boulder".[19]
The
combined name Σίμων Πέτρος (Simon Peter) appears
19 times in the New Testament. In some Syriac documents he is called, in
English translation, Simon Cephas.[20]
Ruins
of ancient Capernaum on north side of
the Sea of Galilee
Peter's
life story is told in the four canonical gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, New Testament
letters, the non-canonical Gospel of the Hebrews and
other Early Churchaccounts of his life and
death. In the New Testament, he is among the first of
the disciples called during Jesus' ministry. Peter became the first listed
apostle ordained by Jesus in the early church.[21]
Peter
was a fisherman in Bethsaida.[Jn. 1:44] He was named
Simon, son of Jonah or John.[22] The three Synoptic Gospels recount how
Peter's mother-in-law was healed by Jesus at their home
in Capernaum[Matt. 8:14–17] [Mk. 1:29–31] [Lk. 4:38]; this passage clearly
depicts Peter as being married. 1 Cor. 9:5 has also been taken to
imply that he was married.[23]
The
Calling of the Apostles Peter and Andrew (from
the Maestà),
c. 1308–1311
In
the Synoptic Gospels, Peter (then Simon)
was a fisherman along with his brother, Andrew, and the sons of Zebedee, James
and John. The Gospel of John also depicts Peter
fishing, even after the resurrection of Jesus, in the story of the Catch of 153 fish. In Matthew and Mark,
Jesus called Simon and his brother Andrew to be "fishers of men".[Matt. 4:18–19] [Mk. 1:16–17]
A
Franciscan church is built upon the traditional site of Apostle Peter's house.[24] In Luke, Simon Peter owns the boat that
Jesus uses to preach to the multitudes who were pressing on him at the shore
of Lake Gennesaret.[Lk. 5:3] Jesus then amazes
Simon and his companions James and John (Andrew is not mentioned) by telling
them to lower their nets, whereupon they catch a huge number of fish.
Immediately after this, they follow him.[Lk. 5:4–11] The Gospel of
John gives a comparable account of "The First Disciples".[Jn. 1:35–42] In John, we
are told that it was two disciples of John the Baptist (Andrew and an
unnamed disciple) who heard John the Baptist announce Jesus as the "Lamb of God" and then followed
Jesus. Andrew then went to his brother Simon, saying, "We have found
the Messiah", and then brought Simon
to Jesus.
Apostle
Peter striking the High Priests' servant Malchus with a sword in the Garden of Gethsemane
Three
of the four gospels – Matthew, Mark and John – recount the story of Jesus walking on water. Matthew additionally
describes Peter walking on water for a moment but beginning to sink when his
faith wavers.[Matt. 14:28–31]
At
the beginning of the Last Supper, Jesus washed his
disciples' feet. Peter initially refused to let Jesus wash his feet, but when
Jesus responded: "If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with me",
Peter replied: "Lord, not my feet only, but also my hands and my
head".[Jn. 13:2–11] The washing of feet is often repeated
in the service of worship on Maundy Thursday by some Christian denominations.
The
three Synoptic Gospels all mention that,
when Jesus was arrested, one of his companions cut off the ear of a servant of
the High Priest.[25] The Gospel of John also
includes this event and names Peter as the swordsman and Malchus as the victim.[Jn. 18:10] Luke adds that
Jesus touched the ear and miraculously healed it.[Lk. 22:49–51] This healing
of the servant's ear is the last of the 37 miracles attributed to Jesus in
the Bible.
"Rock"
dialogue[edit]
In
a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples (Matthew 16:13–19), Jesus asks,
"Who do people say that the Son of Man is?" The disciples
give various answers. When he asks, "Who do you say that
I am?" Simon Peter answers, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the
living God." Jesus then declares:
Blessed
are you, Simon son of Jonah, for this was not revealed to you by flesh and
blood, but by my Father in heaven. And I tell you that you are Cephas (Peter) (Petros), and on this rock (petra) I will build my church, and the gates
of Hades will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of
heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you
loose on earth will be loosed in heaven.
A
common view of Peter is provided by Jesuit Father Daniel J. Harrington, who suggests that
Peter was an unlikely symbol of stability. While he was one of the first
disciples called and was the spokesman for the group, Peter is also the
exemplar of "little faith". In Matthew 14, Peter will soon have Jesus
say to him, "O you of little faith, why did you doubt?", and he will
eventually deny Jesus three times. Thus, in light of the Easter event, Peter
became an exemplar of the forgiven sinner.[26] Outside the Catholic
Church, opinions vary as to the interpretation of this passage with respect to
what authority and responsibility, if any, Jesus was giving to Peter.[27]
In
the Eastern Orthodox Church this
passage is interpreted as not implying a special prominence to the person of
Peter, but to Peter's position as representative of the Apostles. The word used
for "rock" (petra)
grammatically refers to "a small detachment of the massive ledge",[28] not to a massive
boulder. Thus, Orthodox Sacred Tradition understands Jesus'
words as referring to the apostolic faith.
Saint
Peter by Bartolomé Esteban Murillo (1617–1682)
Petros had not
previously been used as a name, but in the Greek-speaking world it became a
popular Christian name, after the tradition of Peter's prominence in the early
Christian church had been established.
Denial
of Jesus by Peter[edit]
The
tears of Saint Peter, by El Greco
Main
article: Denial of Peter
The
Denial of Saint Peter, by Caravaggio
All
four canonical gospels recount that, during the Last Supper, Jesus foretold that Peter
would deny him three times before the following cockcrow ("before the cock
crows twice" in Mark's account).
The
three Synoptics and John describe the three denials
as follows:
1.
A
denial when a female servant of the high priest spots Simon Peter, saying that
he had been with Jesus. According to Mark (but not in all manuscripts),
"the rooster crowed". Only Luke and John mention a fire by which
Peter was warming himself among other people: according to Luke, Peter was
"sitting"; according to John, he was "standing".
2.
A
denial when Simon Peter had gone out to the gateway, away from the firelight,
but the same servant girl (Mark) or another servant girl (Matthew) or a man
(Luke and also John, for whom, though, this is the third denial) told the
bystanders he was a follower of Jesus. According to John, "the rooster
crowed".
3.
A
denial came when Peter's Galilean accent was taken as proof that he was indeed
a disciple of Jesus. According to Matthew, Mark and Luke, "the rooster
crowed". Matthew adds that it was his accent that gave him away as
coming from Galilee. Luke deviates slightly from this by stating that, rather
than a crowd accusing Simon Peter, it was a third individual. John does not
mention the Galilean accent.
The
Gospel of John places the second denial while Peter was still warming himself
at the fire, and gives as the occasion of the third denial a claim by someone
to have seen him in the garden of Gethsemane when Jesus was arrested.
In
the Gospel of Luke is a record of Christ telling Peter: "Simon, Simon, behold,
Satan hath desired to have you, that he may sift you as wheat: but I have
prayed for thee, that thy faith fail not: and when thou art converted,
strengthen thy brethren."
In
a reminiscent[29] scene in John's
epilogue, Peter affirms three times that he loves Jesus.
Resurrection
appearances[edit]
Church
of the Primacy of St. Peter on the Sea of Galilee
In
John's gospel, Peter is the first person to enter the empty tomb, although the women and
the beloved disciple see it before
him.[Jn. 20:1–9] In Luke's
account, the women's report of the empty tomb is dismissed by the apostles, and
Peter is the only one who goes to check for himself,
running to the tomb. After seeing the graveclothes he
goes home, apparently without informing the other disciples.[Lk. 24:1–12]
Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians[30] contains a list
of resurrection appearances of Jesus, the
first of which is an appearance to Peter.[31] Here, Paul apparently
follows an early tradition that Peter was the first to see the risen Christ,[21] which, however, did not
seem to have survived to the time when the gospels were written.[32]
In
the final chapter of the Gospel of
John, Peter, in one of the resurrection appearances of Jesus, three times affirmed his love for Jesus,
balancing his threefold denial, and Jesus reconfirmed Peter's position. The
Church of the Primacy of St. Peter on the Sea of Galilee is seen as the
traditional site where Jesus Christ appeared to his disciples after his
resurrection and, according to Catholic tradition, established Peter's supreme
jurisdiction over the Christian church.
Position
among the apostles[edit]
St.
Peter Preaching the Gospel in the Catacombs by Jan Styka
Peter
is always listed first among the Twelve Apostles in the gospels[33] and in the Book of Acts
(Acts 1:13). He is also frequently mentioned in the gospels as forming
with James the Elder and John a special group within the
Twelve Apostles, present at incidents at which the others were not present,
such as at the Transfiguration of Jesus,[34] at the raising of Jairus' daughter[35] and at the agony in the Garden of
Gethsemane.[36] Peter often confesses
his faith in Jesus as the Messiah.
Peter
is often depicted in the gospels as spokesman of all the Apostles.[37]Catholics refer to him as
chief of the Apostles,[38] as do the Eastern Orthodox[39]and the Oriental Orthodox.[40][41] In Coptic Orthodox
Church liturgy, he is once referred to as "prominent" or
"head" among the Apostles, a title shared with Paul in the text (The
Fraction of Fast and Feast of the Apostles Peter and Paul in the Coptic
Orthodox Church of Alexandria). Some, including the Orthodox Churches,
believe this is not the same as saying that the other Apostles were under
Peter's orders. In contrast, Jewish Christians are said to have
argued that James the Just was the leader of
the group.[42] Some argue James the Just was bishop of Jerusalem whilst Peter
was bishop of Rome and that this
position at times gave James privilege in some (but not all) situations. The
early Church historian Eusebius (c. AD 325) records Clement of Alexandria (c. AD 190)
as saying,
"For
they say that Peter and James (the Greater) and John after the ascension of our Saviour, as if also preferred by our Lord, strove not after
honor, but chose James the Just bishop of
Jerusalem."[43]
Peter
was considered along with James the Just and John the Apostle as pillars of the
Church (Galatians 2:9). Paul affirms that Peter had the special
charge of being apostle to the Jews, just as he, Paul, was apostle to the
Gentiles.
Role
in the early church[edit]
The
Liberation of St. Peter from prison by an
angel, by Giovanni Lanfranco
The
author of the Acts of the Apostles portrays Peter
as an extremely important figure within the early Christian community, with
Peter delivering a significant open-air sermonduring Pentecost. According to the same book,
Peter took the lead in selecting a replacement for Judas Iscariot.[Acts 1:15] Following this
appointment, we see Peter establish the conditions for being an apostle as
those who have spent time with Jesus.[44]
Peter's
authority lent to his role as an adjudicator in conflicts and moral matters. He
takes on this role in the case of Ananias and Sapphira
and holds them accountable for lying about their alms-giving. Peter passes
judgement upon them and they are individually struck dead over the infraction.[45]
Peter's
role wasn't always based around his leadership, but around his gifts for taking
care of those in need. We see Peter establish these trends by reaching out to
the sick and lame. Peter heals two individuals who cannot walk or are paralyzed[46][47] as well as raising
Tabitha from the dead.[47] While these acts were
miracles of compassion, they also contributed to the number of believers in the
early church
He
was twice arraigned, with John, before the Sanhedrin and directly defied
them.[Acts 4:7–22] [5:18–42] After receiving a
vision from God that allowed for the eating of previously unclean animals,
Peter takes a missionary journey to Lydda, Joppa and Caesarea,[9:32–10:2] becoming
instrumental in the decision to evangelise the Gentiles.[10] He applied the message
of the vision on clean animals to the gentiles and follows his meeting with
Cornelius by claiming that 'God shows no partiality.'[48]
Following
the 13th chapter of the Acts of the Apostles, the narrative
turns its attention away from Peter and to the activities of Paul, and the
Bible is mostly silent on what occurred to Peter afterwards.
John Vidmar, a Catholic scholar,
writes: "Catholic scholars agree that Peter had an authority that
superseded that of the other apostles. Peter is their spokesman at several
events, he conducts the election of Matthias, his opinion in the debate over
converting Gentiles was crucial, etc.[49]
According
to the Acts of the Apostles, Peter and John were
sent from Jerusalem to Samaria (Acts 8:14). Peter/Cephas is mentioned
briefly in the opening chapter of Paul's Epistle to the Galatians, which
mentions a trip by Paul to Jerusalem where he meets Peter (Galatians 1:18). Peter features again
in Galatians, fourteen years later, when Paul (now with Barnabas and Titus)
returned to Jerusalem (Galatians 2:7–9), and then, when Peter
came to Antioch, Paul opposed Peter to his face "because he [Peter] was in
the wrong" (NIV) (Galatians 2:11).[50]
Acts 12 tells how Peter, who was
in Jerusalem, was put into prison by King Herod (A.D. 42–44), but
was rescued by an angel. After his
liberation Peter left Jerusalem to go to "another place" (Acts
12:1–18). Concerning Peter's subsequent activity we receive no further
connected information from the extant sources, although we possess short
notices of certain individual episodes of his later life.[2]
At
the Council of Jerusalem (c. 50), the
early Church, Paul and the leaders of the Jerusalem church met and decided to
embrace Gentile converts. Acts portrays Peter and other leaders as successfully
opposing the Christian Pharisees who insisted on circumcision.[51]
The
church in Rome was already flourishing when Paul wrote his Epistle to the Romans about AD 57,[52] he greets some fifty
people in Rome by name,[53] but not Peter whom he knew. There is also no mention
of Peter in Rome later during Paul's two-year stay there in Acts 28, about AD 60–62. Some Church
historians consider Peter and Paul to have been martyred under the reign of Nero,[54][55][56] around AD 65.[57][58][59]
The
Apostles Peter and Paul, detail of cupola fresco by Correggio
In
a strong tradition of the Early Church, Peter is said to have
founded the Church in Rome with Paul, served as its bishop, authored two
epistles, and then met martyrdom there along with Paul. Christians of different
theological backgrounds are in disagreement as to the exact significance of
Peter's ministry. For instance:
·
Catholics
view Peter as the first pope. The Catholic Church asserts that Peter's
ministry, conferred upon him by Jesus of Nazareth in the gospels, lays down the
theological foundation for the pope's exercise of pastoral authority over the
Church.
·
Eastern
Orthodox also believe that Peter's ministry points to an underlying theology
wherein a special primacy ought to be granted to Peter's successors above other
Church leaders but see this as merely a "primacy of honor", rather
than the right to exercise pastoral authority.
·
Protestant
denominations assert that Peter's apostolic work in Rome does not imply a
connection between him and the papacy.
Similarly,
historians of various backgrounds also offer differing interpretations of the
Apostle's presence in Rome.
Road
to Rome: Antioch and Corinth[edit]
According
to the Epistle to the Galatians (2:11), Peter went to Antioch where Paul
rebuked him for separating himself from Gentiles (see the Incident at Antioch). Galatians is accepted
as authentic by almost all scholars. These may be the earliest mentions of
Peter to be written. Later accounts expand on the brief biblical mention of his
visit to Antioch. The Liber Pontificalis (9th
century) mentions Peter as having served as bishop of Antioch for seven years
and having potentially left his family in the Greek city before his journey to
Rome.[60] Claims of direct blood
lineage from Simon Peter among the old population of Antioch existed in the 1st
century and continue to exist today, notably by certain Semaan families of modern-day
Syria and Lebanon. Historians have furnished other evidence of Peter's sojourn
in Antioch.[61] Subsequent tradition
held that Peter had been the first Patriarch of Antioch. According to the
writings of Origen[62] and Eusebius in
his Church History (III, 36) Peter would have been the founder
of the Church of Antioch[63] and "after having
first founded the church at Antioch, went away to Rome preaching the Gospel,
and he also, after [presiding over] the church in Antioch, presided over that
of Rome until his death".[64]
After
presiding over the church in Antioch by a while, Peter would have been
succeeded by Evodius,[65] and after by Ignatius, who was a student of John the Apostle.[66]
Eusebius
of Caesarea, in his "Historia Ecclesiastica (I,12:2)" while naming some of the Seventy Disciples of
Jesus, says:
This
is the account of Clement, in the fifth book of Hypotyposes
(A.D. 190); in which he also says that Cephas was one of the seventy
disciples, a man who bore the same name as the apostle Peter, and the one
concerning whom Paul says, [When Cephas came to Antioch I withstood him to his
face.]
— Galatians 2:11[67][68]
The Clementine literature, a group of
related works written in the fourth century but believed to contain materials
from earlier centuries, relate information about Peter that may come from
earlier traditions. One is that Peter had a group of 12 to 16 followers, whom
the Clementine writings name.[69] Another is that it provides
an itinerary of Peter's route from Caesarea Maritima to Antioch,
where he debated his adversary Simon Magus; during this journey he
ordained Zacchaeus as the first bishop of
Caesarea and Maro as the first bishop of Tripolis. Fred Lapham suggests the
route recorded in the Clementine writings may have been taken from an earlier
document mentioned by Epiphanius of Salamis in his Panarion called "The
Itinerary of Peter".[70]
Eusebius
of Caesarea relates that when Peter confronts Simon Magus at Judea (mentioned
in Acts 8), Simon flees to Rome where the Romans got
to regard him as a god. According to Eusebius, his luck did not last long since
God sent Peter to Rome and Simon was quenched and immediately destroyed.[71]
An
apocryphal work, the Actus Vercellenses (7th century),
a Latin text preserved in only one manuscript copy published widely in
translation under the title Acts of Peter, sets Peter's confrontation with
Simon Magus in Rome.[72][73]
Peter
might have visited Corinth and maybe would have existed a party of "Cephas".[21] First Corinthians suggests that
perhaps Peter visited the city of Corinth, located at Greece, during their
missions.[1Cor. 1:12]
Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, in his Epistle
to the Roman Church under Pope Soter (A.D. 165–174) declares
that Peter and Paul founded the Church of Rome and the Church of Corinth, and
they have lived in Corinth for some time and finally in Italy where they found
death:
You
have thus by such an admonition bound together the planting of Peter and of
Paul at Rome and Corinth. For both of them planted and likewise taught us in
our Corinth. And they taught together in like manner in Italy, and suffered
martyrdom at the same time.[74]
Rome[edit]
Irenaeus of Lyons wrote in
the 2nd century that Peter and Paul
had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed Linus as succeeding bishop.[75]
Clement
of Alexandria states that "Peter had preached the Word publicly at
Rome. (A.D. 190)"[76]
According
to Jerome "Peter went to Rome in
the second year of Claudius to overthrow Simon Magus, and held the sacerdotal
chair there for twenty-five years until the last, that is the fourteenth, year
of Nero."[77]
Lactantius, in his book called Of
the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died, written around 318, noted that
"And while Nero reigned, the Apostle Peter came to Rome, and, through the
power of God committed unto him, wrought certain miracles, and, by turning many
to the true religion, built up a faithful and stedfast
temple unto the Lord."[78]
The
Catholic Church speaks of the pope, the bishop of Rome, as the successor of
Saint Peter. This is often interpreted to imply that Peter was the first Bishop
of Rome. However, it is also said that the institution of the papacy is not
dependent on the idea that Peter was Bishop of Rome or even on his ever having
been in Rome.[79] While accepting that
Peter came to Rome and was martyred there, some scholars claim to find no historical
evidence that he held episcopal office there.[80][81][82][83][84]
While
the church in Rome was already flourishing when Paul wrote his Epistle to the Romans about AD 57,[52] he greets some fifty
people in Rome by name,[53] but not Peter whom he knew. There is also no mention
of Peter in Rome later during Paul's two-year stay there in Acts 28, about AD 60–62. Some church
historians consider Peter and Paul to have been martyred under the reign of Nero,[54][55][56] around AD 65 such as
after the Great Fire of Rome.[57][58][59] Presently, most
Catholic scholars,[85] and many scholars in
general,[86] hold the view that
Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. There is no obvious biblical evidence
that Peter was ever in Rome, but he does mention that "The church that is
at Babylon, elected together with you, saluteth you;
and so doth Marcus my son" (1 Peter 5:13). It is not certain
whether this refers to the actual Babylon or to Rome, for which Babylon was a
common nickname at the time, or to the Jewish diaspora
in general, as a recent theory has proposed.[87][88] Marcus, however, is a
very typical Roman name, which strengthens the theory that Peter refers to Rome
in his letter. In the preceding verse (1 Peter 5:12) he also mentions Silvanus,
another typical Roman name.[89]
In
two extensive studies published respectively in 2009[90] and 2013,[91] Otto Zwierlein [de] held that "there is not a
single piece of reliable literary evidence (and no archaeological evidence
either) that Peter ever was in Rome."[87][92] Zwierlein's
thesis has caused debate.[93][88] Zwierlein
has made a summary of his view available online in English.[94] An edited volume in
German was also written in rebuttal against Otto Zwierlein’s
views.[95][96]
Clement of Rome' First Letter, a
document that has been dated from the 90s to the 120s, is one of the earliest
sources adduced in support of Peter's stay in Rome, but Zwierlein
questions the text's authenticity and whether it has any knowledge about
Peter's life beyond what is contained in the New Testament Acts of the Apostles.[87] The letter also does
not mention any particular place, only saying: "Peter, through unrighteous
envy, endured not one or two, but numerous labours
and when he had at length suffered martyrdom, departed to the place of glory
due to him." (ch. 5)[97] A letter attributed
to Ignatius of Antioch to the Romans
might imply that Peter and Paul had special authority over the Roman church,[21] telling the Roman Christians:
"I do not command you, as Peter and Paul did" (ch.
4), although Zwierlein says he could be simply
referring to the Epistles of the Apostles, or their mission work in the city,
not a special authority given or bestowed. Zwierlein
has questioned the authenticity of this document and its traditional dating to
c. 105–10, who says it may date from the final decades of the 2nd century
instead of from the beginning.[87]
Death[edit]
Domine quo vadis? (1602) by Annibale
Carracci
In
the epilogue[98] of the Gospel of John, Jesus
hints at the death by which Peter would glorify God, saying "when you are
old you will stretch out your hands, and another will dress you and carry you
where you do not want to go."[Jn. 21:18–19] This is
interpreted by some as a reference to Peter's crucifixion.[29] Theologians Donald Fay
Robinson and Warren M. Smaltz have suggested that the
incident in Acts 12:1–17, where Peter is
"released by an angel" and goes to "another place", really
represents an idealized account of his death, which may have occurred in a
Jerusalem prison in as early as 44 AD.[99]
The Muratorian fragment, dated to the
second century A.D., notes that the primary eyewitness to Acts, Luke, was not present at Peter's death.[100] However, early Church
Tradition (as indicated below) says that Peter probably died by crucifixion (with arms
outstretched) at the time of the Great Fire of Rome in the year 64.
The writings of the 1st century Church Father Ignatius of Antioch refer to Peter
and Paul giving admonitions to the Romans, indicating Peter's presence in Rome.[101]Margherita Guarducci, who led the
research leading to the rediscovery of Peter's reputed tomb in its last stages
(1963–1968), concludes Peter died on 13 October AD 64 during the festivities on
the occasion of the "dies imperii" of
Emperor Nero.[102] This took place three
months after the disastrous fire that destroyed Rome for which the emperor
(Nero) wished to blame the Christians. This "dies imperii"
(regnal day anniversary) was an important one, exactly ten years after Nero
ascended to the throne, and it was 'as usual' accompanied by much bloodshed.
Traditionally, Romanauthorities sentenced him to death
by crucifixion. In accordance with the apocryphal Acts of Peter, he was crucified head
down.[103]Tradition also locates his
burial place where the Basilica of Saint Peter was
later built, directly beneath the Basilica's high altar.
The Crucifixion of Saint Peter (1601) by Caravaggio
According
to the 1911 Catholic Encyclopedia, Peter labored in Rome during the
last portion of his life, and there his life was ended by martyrdom.[104]
Pope Clement I, in his Letter
to the Corinthians (Chapter 5), written c. 80–98, speaks of Peter's
martyrdom in the following terms: "Let us take the noble examples of our
own generation. Through jealousy and envy the greatest and most just pillars of
the Church were persecuted, and came even unto death. … Peter, through unjust
envy, endured not one or two but many labours, and at
last, having delivered his testimony, departed unto the place of glory due to
him."[105]
The
death of Peter is attested to by Tertullian at the end of the 2nd
century, in his Prescription Against Heretics, noting that Peter endured
a passion like his Lord's:[106] In his work Scorpiace 15, he also speaks of Peter's
crucifixion: "The budding faith Nero first made bloody in Rome. There
Peter was girded by another, since he was bound to the cross".[107]
Origen in his Commentary
on the Book of Genesis III, quoted by Eusebius of Caesaria
in his Ecclesiastical History (III, 1), said: "Peter was
crucified at Rome with his head downwards, as he himself had desired to
suffer."[38] The Cross of St. Peter inverts
the Latin cross based on this refusal,
and his claim of being unworthy to die the same way as his Saviour.[108]
Peter of Alexandria, who was bishop
of Alexandria and died around A.D.
311, wrote an epistle on Penance, in which he says: "Peter,
the first of the apostles, having been often apprehended, and thrown into prison,
and treated with ignominy, was last of all crucified at Rome".[109]
Jerome
describes that "At his Nero's hands Peter received the crown of martyrdom
being nailed to the cross with his head towards the ground and his feet raised
on high, asserting that he was unworthy to be crucified in the same manner as
his Lord."[77]
The apocryphal Acts of Peter (Vercelli Acts XXXV[110]), is the source for the
tradition about the Latin famous phrase "Quo vadis, Domine?" (in
Greek: Κύριε, ποῦ
ὑπάγεις
"Kyrie, pou hypageis?"),
which means "Where are you going, Lord?". According to the story,
Peter, fleeing Rome to avoid execution meets the risen Jesus. In the Latin
translation, Peter asks Jesus, "Quo vadis?"
He replies, "Romam eo iterum crucifigi ("I am
going to Rome to be crucified again"). Peter then gains the courage to
continue his ministry and returns to the city, where he is martyred. This story
is commemorated in an Annibale Carracci painting.
The Church of Quo Vadis, near the Catacombs of Saint Callistus, contains a stone in
which Jesus' footprints from this event are supposedly preserved, though this
was apparently an ex-voto from a pilgrim, and indeed a copy of the
original, housed in the Basilica of St Sebastian.
The
ancient historian Josephus describes how Roman soldiers
would amuse themselves by crucifying criminals in different positions,[111] and it is likely that
this would have been known to the author of the Acts of Peter. The
position attributed to Peter's crucifixion is thus plausible, either as having
happened historically or as being an invention by the author of the Acts
of Peter. Death, after crucifixion head down, is unlikely to be caused
by suffocation, the usual "cause of
death in ordinary crucifixion".[112]
Status[edit]
St. Clement of Rome identifies
Peter and Paul as the outstanding heroes of the faith.[21] Papias
reported that the Gospel of Mark was based on Peter's memoirs, a tradition
still accepted by some scholars today.[21]
Burial
and relics[edit]
Looking
down into the confessionear the tomb of Apostle
Peter, St. Peter's Basilica, Rome
Catholic
tradition holds that Peter's inverted crucifixion occurred at the spot now
occupied by the Clementine Chapel in the grottoes
of Saint Peter's Basilica, with the burial in Saint Peter's tomb nearby.[113]
Caius in
his Disputation Against Proclus (A.D. 198), preserved in part by
Eusebius, relates this of the places in which the remains of the apostles Peter
and Paul were deposited: "I can point out the trophies of the apostles. For if you are willing to go to the Vatican or to the Ostian Way, you will find the trophies of those who founded
this Church".[114]
According
to Jerome, in his work De Viris Illustribus (A.D. 392),
"Peter was buried at Rome in the Vatican near the triumphal way where he
is venerated by the whole world."[77]
In
the early 4th century, the Emperor Constantine I decided to honour Peter with a large basilica.[115][116] Because the precise
location of Peter's burial was so firmly fixed in the belief of the Christians
of Rome, the church to house the basilica had to be erected on a site that was
not convenient to construction. The slope of the Vatican Hill had to be excavated,
even though the church could much more easily have been built on level ground
only slightly to the south. There were also moral and legal issues, such as
demolishing a cemetery to make room for the building. The focal point of the
Basilica, both in its original form and in its later complete reconstruction,
is the altar located over what is said to be the point of Peter's burial.
St. Peter's Basilica, believed to be
the burial site of St. Peter, seen from
the River Tiber
According
to a letter quoted by Bede, Pope Vitalian sent a cross
containing filings said to be from Peter's chains to the queen of Oswy, Anglo-Saxon King of Northumbria in 665, as well as
unspecified relics of the saint to the king.[117]
In
1950, human bones were found buried underneath the altar of St. Peter's
Basilica. The bones have been claimed by many to have been those of Peter.[118] An attempt to
contradict these claims was made in 1953 by the excavation of what some believe
to be St Peter's tomb in Jerusalem.[119] However along with
this supposed tomb in Jerusalem bearing his previous name Simon (but not
Peter), tombs bearing the names of Jesus, Mary, James, John, and the rest of
the apostles were also found at the same excavation—though all these names were
very common among Jews at the time.
In
the 1960s, items from the excavations beneath St Peter's Basilica were
re-examined, and the bones of a male person were identified. A forensic
examination found them to be a male of about 61 years of age from the 1st
century. This caused Pope Paul VI in 1968 to announce them most likely to be
the relics of Apostle Peter.[120] On November 24,
2013, Pope Francis revealed these relics
of nine bone fragments for the first time in public during a Mass celebrated in
St. Peter's Square.[121]
Epistles[edit]
Saint
Peter's vision on the roof of the house
Church
tradition ascribes the epistles First and Second Peter to the Apostle Peter,
as does the text of Second Peter itself. First Peter implies the author is in
"Babylon", which has been held to be a coded reference to Rome[122] (1 Peter 5:13).
Most
Biblical scholars[123][124] believe that
"Babylon" is a metaphor for the pagan Roman Empire at the time it
persecuted Christians, before the Edict of Milan in 313: perhaps
specifically referencing some aspect of Rome's rule (brutality, greed, paganism).
In 4 Ezra,[125][126] 2 Baruch[127] and the Sibylline oracles,[128] "Babylon" is
a cryptic name for Rome.[129] Reinhard
Feldmeier speculates that "Babylon" is used
to refer to Rome in 1 Peter 5:13.[130] In Revelation 17:9 it is said that
she sits on "seven mountains",[131]typically understood as
the seven hills of Rome.[132][133][134][135][136] A Roman coin minted
under the Emperor Vespasian (ca. 70 AD)
depicts Rome as a woman sitting on seven
hills.[137]
According
to the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia,
"The characteristics ascribed to this Babylon apply to Rome rather than to
any other city of that age: (a) as ruling over the kings of the earth
(Revelation 17:18); (b) as sitting on seven mountains (Revelation 17:9); (c) as
the center of the world's merchandise (Revelation 18:3, 11–13); (d) as the
corrupter of the nations (Revelation 17:2; 18:3; 19:2); (e) as the persecutor
of the saints (Revelation 17:6)."[138]
At
that time in history, the ancient city of Babylon was no longer of any
importance. E.g., Strabo wrote, "The greater
part of Babylon is so deserted that one would not hesitate to say ... The Great
City is a great desert."[139]
Another
theory is that Babylon term refers to the Babylon in Egypt that was an
important fortress city in Egypt, just north
of today's Cairo and this, combined with the "greetings from Mark" (1
Peter 5:13), who may be Mark the Evangelist, regarded as the
founder of the Church of Alexandria (Egypt), has
led some scholars to regard the First Peter epistle as having been written in
Egypt.
Early
Church tradition reports that Peter wrote from Rome. Eusebius of Caesarea
states:
Clement of Alexandria in the sixth
[book] of the Hypotyposeis cites the story, and the
bishop of Hierapolis named Papias joins him in testifying
that Peter mentions Mark in the first epistle, which they say he composed in
Rome herself, and that he indicates this, calling the city more figuratively
Babylon by these: "She who is in Babylon, chosen together with you, sends
you greetings and so does my son Mark. (1 Pet 5:13)[140]
If
the reference is to Rome, it is the only biblical reference to Peter being
there. Many scholars regard both First and Second Peter as not having been
authored by him, partly because other parts of the Acts of the Apostles seem
to describe Peter as an illiterate fisherman.[9][141]
Catholic
Church[edit]
Main
articles: Primacy of Simon Peter and Papal primacy
Statue
of St. Peter in St. Peter's Square at the Vatican
According
to Catholic belief, Simon Peter was distinguished by Jesus to hold the first place of honor and authority.
Also in Catholic belief, Peter was, as the first Bishop of Rome, the
first Pope. Furthermore, they consider every
Pope to be Peter's successor and the rightful superior of all other bishops.[142] Although Peter never
bore the title of "Pope", or "Vicar of
Christ", in this sense the Catholic Church considers Peter the first Pope.[143]
The
Catholic Church's recognition of Peter as head of its church on Earth (with
Christ being its heavenly head) is based on its
interpretation of two passages from the canonical gospels of the New Testament; as well as sacred tradition. The first passage
is John 21:15–17 which is: "Feed
my lambs... feed my lambs... feed my sheep" (within the Greek it is Ποίμαινε i.e., to
feed and rule [as a Shepherd]., v. 16 while Βόσκε i.e., to feed., for v.15
& v. 17)[144]—which is seen by Catholics
as Christ promising the spiritual supremacy to Peter. The Catholic Encyclopediasees
in this passage Jesus "charging [Peter] with the superintendency
of all his sheep, without exception; and consequently of his whole flock, that
is, of his own church".[142]
Matthew
16:18[edit]
The
second passage is Matthew 16:18:
I
tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the
gates of Hell will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of
heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you
loose on earth will be loosed in heaven.
— Matthew 16:18–19
(NIV)
Jesus
could have said the following phrase in Aramaic, which could have spoken:[145]
ܐܳܦ݂
ܐܶܢܳܐ ܐܳܡܰܪ ܐ݈ܢܳܐ
ܠܳܟ݂ ܕ݁ܰܐܢ݈ܬ݁
ܗ݈ܽܘ ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ ܘܥܰܠ
ܗܳܕ݂ܶܐ ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ ܐܶܒ݂ܢܶܝܗ
ܠܥܺܕ݈݁ܬ݁ܝ ܘܬ݂ܰܪܥܶܐ
ܕ݁ܰܫܝܽܘܠ ܠܳܐ ܢܶܚܣܢܽܘܢܳܗ܂
— (Peshitta) ܡܬܝ ܝܘ. ܝܚ – ܟ
also I say I to you that you are Keepa
(Cephas) and on this Keepa (Cephas) I will build my
Church and the gates of Sheol not will subdue it.[146]
You
are a rock, and upon this rock will I build my Church and the gates of Sheol not will subdue it.
Statue
of St. Peter in the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran by Pierre-Étienne Monnot
Paul of Tarsus called
Peter as "Cephas",[147] in the same way that
Jesus did.[148] This Hellenized Hebrew
word of Aramaic ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ (Cephas),
was not a proper name, but Paul assigns him as such.
Petros (Πέτρος)
and petra (πέτρᾳ)
are the Greek equivalent to the Syriac Cephas (ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ) which means "rock",[149] and there is no
difference at all between Petros and petra.[150][151]
To
better understand what Christ meant, St. Basil elaborates:[152]
Though
Peter be a rock, yet he is not a rock as Christ is.
For Christ is the true unmoveable rock of himself,
Peter is unmoveable by Christ the rock. For Jesus
doth communicate and impart his dignities, not voiding himself of them, but
holding them to himself, bestoweth
them also upon others. He is the light, and yet 2. You are the light: he is the
Priest, and yet he 3. maketh
Priests: he is the rock, and he made a rock.
— Basil li. De poenit. cƒ.
Matt. v. 14 ; Luke 22:19
In
reference to Peter's occupation before becoming an Apostle, the popes wear
the Fisherman's Ring, which bears an image
of the saint casting his nets from a fishing boat. The keys used as a symbol of
the pope's authority refer to the "keys of the kingdom of Heaven"
promised to Peter.[Matt. 16:18–19] The
terminology of this "commission" of Peter is unmistakably parallel to
the commissioning of Eliakim ben Hilkiah
in Isaiah 22:15–23. Peter is often
depicted in both Western and Eastern Christian art holding a key or a set of keys.
Though
the authenticity of this account has been challenged, the general consensus is
that these are Jesus' words.[1]
Feast
days[edit]
Main
article: Feast of Saints Peter and Paul
The Roman Martyrology assigns 29 June
as the feast day of both Peter and Paul, without thereby declaring that to
be the day of their deaths. Augustine of Hippo says in his
Sermon 295: "One day is assigned for the celebration of the martyrdom of
the two apostles. But those two were one. Although their martyrdom occurred on
different days, they were one."
This
is also the feast of both Apostles in the calendar of
the Eastern Orthodox Church.
In
the Roman Rite, the feast of the Chair of Saint Peter is celebrated
on 22 February, and the anniversary of the dedication of the two papal basilicas of Saint Peter's and Saint Paul's outside the Walls is
held on 18 November.
Before Pope John XXIII's revision in 1960, the
Roman Calendar also included on 18 January another feast of the Chair of Saint
Peter (denominated the Chair of Saint Peter in Rome, while the February feast
was then called that of the Chair of Saint Peter at Antioch), and on 1 August
the feast of Saint Peter in Chains.
See
also: St Peter's Eve
Meaning
of Matthew 16:18[edit]
In
the original Greek the word translated as
"Peter" is Πέτρος (Petros) and that translated as "rock" is πέτρα (petra),
two words that, while not identical, give an impression of one of many times
when Jesus used a play on words. Furthermore, since Jesus presumably spoke to
Peter in their native Aramaic language, he would have
used kepha in both instances.[153] The Peshitta Textand the Old Syriac texts use the word
"kepha" for both "Peter" and
"rock" in Matthew 16:18.[154] John 1:42 says Jesus called Simon
"Cephas", as Paul calls him in some letters. He was instructed by
Christ to strengthen his brethren, i.e., the apostles.[Lk 22:31–32] Peter also had
a leadership role in the early Christian church at Jerusalem according to The
Acts of the Apostles chapters 1–2, 10–11, and 15.
Early
Catholic Latin and Greek writers (such as St. John Chrysostom) considered the
"foundation rock" as applying to both Peter personally and his
confession of faith (or the faith of his confession) symbolically, as well as
seeing Christ's promise to apply more generally to his twelve apostles and the
Church at large.[155] This "double
meaning" interpretation is present in the current Catechism of the Catholic Church.[156]
Protestant
counter-claims to the Catholic interpretation are largely based on the
difference between the Greek words translated "Rock" in the Matthean passage. In popular-level writings, rather than in
academic studies, they claim that in classical Attic Greekpetros (masculine)
generally meant "pebble", while petra (feminine)
meant "boulder" or "cliff", and accordingly, taking Peter's
name to mean "pebble," they argue that the "rock" in
question cannot have been Peter, but something else, either Jesus himself, or
the faith in Jesus that Peter had just professed.[157][158] These popular-level
writings are rebutted in similar popular-level Catholic writings.[159]
The
New Testament was written in Koiné Greek, not Attic Greek, and some
authorities say no significant difference existed between the meanings of petros and petra.
So far from meaning a pebble was the word petros that Apollonius Rhodius a writer of Koiné Greek of the third century B.C., used it to refer to
"a huge round boulder, a terrible quoit of Ares Enyalius; four stalwart youths could
not have raised it from the ground even a little".[160]
Christ
Handing the Keys to St Peter, by Pietro Perugino (1481–82)
The
feminine noun petra (πέτρα in Greek), translated as rock in
the phrase "on this rock I will build my church", is also used
at 1 Cor. 10:4 in describing Jesus
Christ, which reads: "They all ate the same spiritual food and drank the
same spiritual drink; for they drank from the spiritual rock that accompanied
them, and that rock was Christ."
Although Matthew 16 is used as a primary proof-text
for the Catholic doctrine of Papal supremacy, some Protestant scholars say that
prior to the Reformation of the 16th century, Matthew 16 was very rarely used
to support papal claims, despite it being well documented as being used in the
3rd century by Stephen of Rome against Cyprian of Carriage in a
"passionate disagreement" about baptism and in the 4th century by
Pope Damasus as a claim to primacy as a lesson of the
Arian Controversy for stricter discipline and centralized control.[161] Their position is that
most of the early and medieval Church interpreted the 'rock' as being a
reference either to Christ or to Peter's faith, not Peter himself. They understand
Jesus' remark to have been his affirmation of Peter's testimony that Jesus was
the Son of God.[162]
Despite
this claim, many Fathers saw a connection between Matthew 16:18 and the primacy
of Peter and his office, such as Tertullian, writing: the Lord
said to Peter, 'On this rock I will build my Church, I have given you the keys
of the kingdom of heaven [and] whatever you shall have bound or loosed on earth
will be bound or loosed in heaven' [Matt. 16:18–19]. . . . Upon you, he says, I
will build my Church; and I will give to you the keys, not to the Church.[163]
What
did Peter begin?[edit]
Other
theologically conservative Christians, including Confessional Lutherans, also rebut
comments made by Karl Keating and D.A. Carson who claim that there is no
distinction between the words petros and petra in Koine Greek.
The Lutheran theologians state that the dictionaries of Koine/NT Greek, including the
authoritative[164] Bauer-Danker-Arndt-Gingrich Lexicon,
indeed list both words and the passages that give different meanings for each.
The Lutheran theologians further note that:
We
honor Peter and in fact some of our churches are named after him, but he was
not the first pope, nor was he Roman Catholic. If you read his first letter,
you will see that he did not teach a Roman hierarchy, but that all Christians
are royal priests. The same keys given to Peter in Matthew 16 are given to the
whole church of believers in Matthew 18.[165]
Saint
Peter by Dirck van Baburen
Oscar Cullmann, a Lutheran theologian
and distinguished Church historian, disagrees with Luther and the Protestant
reformers who held that by "rock" Christ did not mean Peter, but
meant either himself or the faith of His followers. He believes the meaning of
the original Aramaic is very clear: that "Kepha"
was the Aramaic word for "rock", and that it was also the name by
which Christ called Peter.[166]
Yet,
Cullmann sharply rejects the Catholic claim that
Peter began the papal succession. He writes: "In the life of Peter there
is no starting point for a chain of succession to the leadership of the church
at large." While he believes the Matthew text is entirely valid and is in
no way spurious, he says it cannot be used as "warrant of the papal
succession."[166]
Cullmann concludes that while Peter was the
original head of the apostles, Peter was not the founder of any visible church
succession.[166]
There
are other Protestant scholars who also partially defend the historical Catholic
position about "Rock."[167] Taking a somewhat
different approach from Cullman, they point out that the Gospel of Matthew was
not written in the classical Attic form of Greek, but in the Hellenistic Koine dialect in which there is no
distinction in meaning between petros and petra. Moreover, even in Attic Greek, in which the
regular meaning of petros was a smallish
"stone," there are instances of its use to refer to larger rocks, as
in Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus v. 1595,
where petros refers to a boulder
used as a landmark, obviously something more than a pebble. In any case,
a petros/petra distinction
is irrelevant considering the Aramaic language in which the phrase might well
have been spoken. In Greek, of any period, the feminine noun petra could not be
used as the given name of a male, which may explain the use of Petrosas the Greek word with which to translate
Aramaic Kepha.[153]
Yet,
still other Protestant scholars believe that Jesus in fact did mean
to single out Peter as the very rock which he will build upon, but that the passage
does nothing to indicate a continued succession of Peter's implied position.
They assert that Matthew uses the demonstrative pronoun taute, which allegedly means "this very"
or this same, when he refers to the rock on which Jesus' church
will be built. He also uses the Greek word for "and", kai.
It is alleged that when a demonstrative pronoun is used with kai,
the pronoun refers back to the preceding noun. The second rock Jesus refers to
must then be the same rock as the first one; and if Peter is the first rock he
must also be the second.[168]
Unlike
Oscar Cullmann, Confessional Lutherans and many
other Protestant apologists agree that it's meaningless to elaborate the
meaning of Rock by looking at the Aramaic language, this is
true that the Jews spoke mostly Aramaic at home, however in public they usually
spoke Greek. The few Aramaic words spoken by Jesus in public were unusual and
that is why they are noted as such. And most importantly the New Testament was
revealed in Koine Greek, not Aramaic.[169][170][171]
Lutheran
historians even report that the Catholic church itself
didn't, at least unanimously, regard Peter as the Rock until
the 1870s:
Rome's
rule for explaining the Scriptures and determining doctrine is the Creed of Pius IV. This Creed binds Rome to
explain the Scriptures only according to the unanimous consent of the Fathers.
In the year 1870 when the Fathers gathered and the pope declared his
infallibility, the cardinals were not in agreement on Matthew 16, 18. They had
five different interpretations. Seventeen insisted, Peter is
the rock. Sixteen held that Christ is the rock. Eight were emphatic that
the whole apostolic college is the rock. Forty-four said, Peter's faith is the rock, The remainder looked upon the whole body of believers
as the rock. — And yet Rome taught and still teaches that Peter is the rock.[172]
Eastern
Orthodox[edit]
Icon
of Saint Peter, c 1500
The Eastern Orthodox Church regards
Apostle Peter, together with Apostle Paul, as "Preeminent Apostles".
Another title used for Peter is Coryphaeus, which could be
translated as "Choir-director", or lead singer.[173] The church recognizes
Apostle Peter's leadership role in the early church, especially in the very
early days at Jerusalem, but does not consider him to have had any
"princely" role over his fellow Apostles.
The
New Testament is not seen by the Orthodox as supporting any extraordinary
authority for Peter with regard to faith or morals. The Orthodox also hold that
Peter did not act as leader at the Council of Jerusalem, but as merely one
of a number who spoke. The final decision regarding the non-necessity of circumcision (and certain prohibitions)
was spelled out by James, the Brother of the Lord (though
Catholics hold James merely reiterated and fleshed out what Peter had said,
regarding the latter's earlier divine revelation regarding the inclusion of
Gentiles).
Eastern
and Oriental Orthodox do not recognize the Bishop of Rome as the successor of
St. Peter but the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople sends
a delegation each year to Rome to participate in the celebration of the feast
of Sts. Peter and Paul. In the Ravenna Document of 13 October
2007, the representatives of the Eastern Orthodox Church agreed
that "Rome, as the Church that 'presides in love' according to the phrase
of St. Ignatius of Antioch (To the Romans, Prologue), occupied the first place
in the taxis, and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the protos among the patriarchs, if the Papacy
unites with the Orthodox Church. They disagree, however, on the interpretation
of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the
bishop of Rome as protos, a matter that
was already understood in different ways in the first millennium."
With
regard to Jesus' words to Peter, "Thou art Peter and upon this rock I will
build my church", the Orthodox hold Christ is referring to the confession
of faith, not the person of Peter as that upon which he will
build the church. This is allegedly shown by the fact that the original Greek uses
the feminine demonstrative pronoun when he says "upon this rock"
(ταύτῃ
τῇ πέτρᾳ);
whereas, grammatically, if he had been referring to Peter, he would allegedly
have used the masculine.[174] This "gender
distinction" argument is also held by some Protestants.
Feast
days[edit]
In
the Orthodox Daily Office every Thursday
throughout the year is dedicated to the Holy Apostles, including St. Peter.
There are also two feast days in the year which are
dedicated to him:
·
June
29, Feast of Saints Peter and Paul—This is
a major feast day and is preceded by a period of Lenten fasting known as
the Apostles' Fast
·
January
16, Veneration of the Precious Chains of the Holy and
All-Glorious Apostle Peter—commemorating both the chains
which Acts 12:1–11 says miraculously
fell from him, and the chains in which he was held before his martyrdom by Nero.
Syriac Orthodox Church[edit]
Saint
Peter and the angel, by Antonio de Bellis
The
Fathers of the Syriac Orthodox Church tried to give a
theological interpretation to the primacy of Apostle Peter. They were fully
convinced of the unique office of Peter in the primitive Christian
community. Ephrem, Aphrahatand Maruthas who were supposed to have
been the best exponents of the early Syriac tradition unequivocally
acknowledge the office of Peter.
The
Syriac Fathers, following the rabbinic tradition,
call Jesus "Kepha" for they see
"rock" in the Old Testament as a messianic Symbol (yet the Old
Maronite Syriacs of Lebanon still refer to Saint
Peter as "Saint Simon the Generous" or Simon Karam").
When Christ gave his own name "Kepha" to
Simon he was giving him participation in the person and office of Christ.
Christ who is the Kepha and shepherd made Simon the
chief shepherd in his place and gave him the very name Kepha
and said that on Kepha he would build the
Church. Aphrahat shared the common Syriac tradition. For him Kepha
is in fact another name of Jesus, and Simon was given the right to share the
name. The person who receives somebody else's name also obtains the rights of
the person who bestows the name. Aphrahat makes the
stone taken from Jordan a type of Peter. He wrote: "Jesus son of Nun set
up the stones for a witness in Israel; Jesus our Saviour
called Simon Kepha Sarirto
and set him as the faithful witness among nations".
Again
he wrote in his commentary on Deuteronomy that Moses brought forth water from
"rock" (Kepha) for the people and Jesus
sent Simon Kepha to carry his teachings among
nations. God accepted him and made him the foundation of the Church and called
him Kepha. When he speaks about the transfiguration
of Christ he calls him Simon Peter, the foundation of the
Church. Ephrem also shared the same view. In the
Armenian version of De Virginitate records that Peter the rock shunned honour. In a mimro of
Efrem found in Holy Week Liturgy points to the
importance of Peter.
Both Aphrahat and Ephrem represent the authentic
tradition of the Syrian Church. The different orders of liturgies used for
sanctification of Church buildings, marriage, ordination etcetera, reveal that
the primacy of Peter is a part of living faith of the Church.[175]
New
Apostolic Church[edit]
The New Apostolic Church, who believes in
the re-established Apostle ministry, sees Peter as the first Chief Apostle.
Church
of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints[edit]
Saint
Peter by Vasco Fernandes
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches
that Peter was the first leader of the early Christian church after the death
and resurrection of Jesus Christ. While the Church accepts apostolic succession
from Peter, it rejects papal successors as illegitimate.
In
interpreting Matthew 16:13–19, Latter-day Saint
leader Bruce R. McConkie stated,
"The things of God are known only by the power of his Spirit,"[176] and "that which
the world calls Mormonism is based upon the rock of revelation."[177] In his April
1981 general conference address, McConkie identified the rock of which Jesus spoke as the
rock of revelation: "There is no other foundation upon which the Lord
could build His Church and kingdom .... Revelation: Pure, perfect, personal
revelation—this is the rock!"[178] Joseph Smith, the founder of Mormonism, recorded in multiple
revelations that Peter appeared to him and Oliver Cowdery in 1829, near Harmony Township, Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania,
in order to bestow the apostleship and keys of the kingdom as part of a restoration of priesthood authority.[179][180]
Islam[edit]
Main
article: Peter in Islam
Muslims consider Jesus a prophet of God. The Qur'an also speaks of Jesus's
disciples but does not mention their names, instead referring to them as
"helpers to the prophet of God".[181] Muslim exegesis
and Qur'an commentary, however, names
them and includes Peter among the disciples.[182] An old tradition,
which involves the legend of Habib the Carpenter, mentions that
Peter was one of the three disciples sent to Antioch to preach to the people
there.[183]
Shia Muslims see a parallel in the
figure of Peter to Ali at Muhammad's time. They look upon Ali as
being the vicegerent, with Muhammad being the prophet; likewise, they see Peter as
the vicegerent, behind Jesus the prophet and Masih. Peter's role as the first proper
leader of the church is also seen by Shias to be a parallel to their belief in
Ali as the first caliph after Muhammad.[184]
Bahá'í Faith[edit]
In
his Advent of Divine Justice, Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, refers to Peter:[185]
"Peter," 'Abdu'l-Bahá has testified,
"according to the history of the Church, was also incapable of keeping
count of the days of the week. Whenever he decided to go fishing, he would tie
up his weekly food into seven parcels, and every day he would eat one of them,
and when he had reached the seventh, he would know that the Sabbath had
arrived, and thereupon would observe it." If the Son of Man was capable of
infusing into apparently so crude and helpless an instrument such potency as to
cause, in the words of Bahá'u'lláh, "the mysteries of
wisdom and of utterance to flow out of his mouth," and to exalt him above
the rest of His disciples, and render him fit to become His successor and the
founder of His Church, how much more can the Father, Who is Bahá'u'lláh,
empower the most puny and insignificant among His followers to achieve, for the
execution of His purpose, such wonders as would dwarf the mightiest
achievements of even the first apostle of Jesus Christ!
Judaism[edit]
Main
article: Saint Peter and Judaism
According
to an old Jewish tradition, Simon Peter joined the early Christians at the
decision of the Rabbis. Worried that early Christianity's similarity to Judaism
would lead people to mistake it as a branch of Judaism,
he was chosen to join them. As he moved up in rank, he would be able to lead
them into forming their own, distinct belief system. Despite this, he was said
to remain a practicing Jew, and is ascribed with the authorship of the Nishmas prayer.[186]
Traditionally,
two canonical epistles (1 and 2 Peter) and several apocryphal works
have been attributed to Peter.
New
Testament[edit]
St
Peter painted by Francesco del Cossa
Epistles[edit]
Main
article: Authorship of the Petrine epistles
The New Testament includes two letters
(epistles) ascribed to Peter. Both demonstrate a high quality of
cultured and urban Greek, at odds with the linguistic skill that would
ordinarily be expected of an Aramaic-speaking fisherman, who would
have learned Greek as a second or third language. The textual features of these
two epistles are such that a majority of scholars doubt that they were written
by the same hand. Some scholars argue that theological differences imply
different sources, and point to the lack of references to 2 Peter among
the early Church Fathers.
Daniel B. Wallace (who maintains
that Peter was the author) writes that, for many scholars, "the issue of
authorship is already settled, at least negatively: the apostle Peter did not
write this letter" and that "the vast bulk of NT scholars adopts this
perspective without much discussion". However, he later states,
"Although a very strong case has been made against Petrine authorship of 2
Peter, we believe it is deficient... Taken together, these external and
internal arguments strongly suggest the traditional view, viz., that Peter was
indeed the author of the second epistle which bears his name."[187]
Of
the two epistles, the first epistle is considered the
earlier. A number of scholars have argued that the textual discrepancies with
what would be expected of the biblical Peter are due to it having been written
with the help of a secretary or as an amanuensis.[188]
Jerome explains:
The
two Epistles attributed to St. Peter differ in style, character, and the
construction of the words, which proves that according to the exigencies of the
moment St. Peter made use of different interpreters (Epistle 120 – To Hedibia)[189]
Some
have seen a reference to the use of a secretary in the sentence: "By
Silvanus, a faithful brother unto you, as I suppose, I have written briefly,
exhorting, and testifying that this is the true grace of God wherein ye
stand".[1 Pet. 5:12] However New
Testament scholar Bart D. Ehrman in his 2011
book Forged states that "scholars now widely recognize
that when the author indicates that he wrote the book 'through Silvanus', he is
indicating not the name of his secretary, but the person who was carrying his
letter to the recipients."[190] The letter refers to
Roman persecution of Christians, apparently of an official nature. The Roman
historian Tacitus and the biographer Suetonius do both record that Nero
persecuted Christians, and Tacitus dates this to immediately after the fire
that burned Rome in 64. Christian tradition, for example Eusebius of Caesarea (History book
2, 24.1), has maintained that Peter was killed in Nero's persecution, and thus
had to assume that the Roman persecution alluded to in First Peter must be this
Neronian persecution.[188] On the other hand,
many modern scholars argue that First Peter refers to the persecution of
Christians in Asia Minor during the reign of the emperor Domitian (81–96), as the letter is
explicitly addressed to Jewish Christians from that region:
Peter,
an apostle of Jesus Christ, to God's elect, strangers in the world, scattered
throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia, who have been chosen
according to the foreknowledge of God the Father, through the sanctifying work
of the Spirit, for obedience to Jesus Christ and sprinkling by his blood: Grace
and peace be yours in abundance.[1Pet 1:1–2]
Those
scholars who believe that the epistle dates from the time of Domitian argue
that Nero's persecution of Christians was confined to the city of Rome itself,
and did not extend to the Asian provinces mentioned in 1 Pet 1:1–2.
The Second Epistle of Peter, on the other
hand, appears to have been copied, in part, from the Epistle of Jude, and some modern scholars
date its composition as late as c. 150. Some scholars argue
the opposite, that the Epistle of Jude copied Second Peter, while others
contend an early date for Jude and thus observe that an early date is not
incompatible with the text.[188] Many scholars have
noted the similarities between the apocryphal Second Epistle of Clement (2nd
century) and Second Peter. Second Peter may be earlier than 150, there are a
few possible references to it that date back to the 1st century or early 2nd
century, e.g., 1 Clementwritten in c. AD
96, and the later church historian Eusebius wrote that Origen had made reference to the
epistle before 250.[188][191]
Jerome
says that Peter "wrote two epistles which are called Catholic, the second
of which, on account of its difference from the first in style, is considered
by many not to be by him". (De Viris Illustribus 1)[192] But he himself
received the epistle, and explained the difference in style and character and
structure of words by the assumption that Peter used different interpreters in
the composition of the two epistles;[189] and from his time
onward the epistle was generally regarded as a part of the New Testament.
Even
in early times there was controversy over its authorship, and Second Peter was
often not included in the biblical canon; it was only in the 4th
century that it gained a firm foothold in the New Testament, in a series of
synods. In the east the Syriac Orthodox Church still did not
admit it into the canon until the 6th century.[188]
Mark[edit]
Traditionally,
the Gospel of Mark was said to have
been written by a person named John Mark, and that this person was an
assistant to Peter, hence its content was traditionally seen as the closest to
Peter's viewpoint. According to Eusebius' |Ecclesiastical History, Papias recorded this belief
from John the Presbyter:
Mark
having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down
accurately whatsoever he remembered. It was not, however, in exact order that
he related the sayings or deeds of Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor
accompanied Him. But afterwards, as I said, he accompanied Peter, who
accommodated his instructions to the necessities [of his hearers], but with no
intention of giving a normal or chronological narrative of the Lord's sayings.
Wherefore Mark made no mistake in thus writing some things as he remembered
them. For of one thing he took especial care, not to omit anything he had
heard, and not to put anything fictional into the statements[193]
Clement
of Alexandria in the fragments of his work Hypotyposes
(A.D. 190) preserved and cited by the historian Eusebius in his Church
History (VI, 14: 6) writes that:
As
Peter had preached the Word publicly at Rome, and declared the Gospel by the
Spirit, many who were present requested that Mark, who had followed him for a long
time and remembered his sayings, should write them out. And having composed the
Gospel he gave it to those who had requested it.[76]
Also
Irenaeus wrote about this tradition:
After
their (Peter and Paul's) passing, Mark also, the disciple and interpreter of
Peter, transmitted to us in writing the things preached by Peter.[194]
Based
on these quotes, and on the Christian tradition, the information in Mark's
gospel about Peter would be based on eyewitness material.[188] The gospel itself is anonymous, and the above passages are
the oldest surviving written testimony to its authorship.[188]
Pseudepigrapha and apocrypha[edit]
The key as symbol of St. Peter
There
are also a number of other apocryphal writings,
that have been either attributed to or written about Peter. These
include:
·
Gospel of Peter, a partially Docetic narrative that has
survived in part
·
Acts of Peter
·
Acts of Peter and Andrew
·
Acts of Peter and Paul
·
Acts of Peter and the Twelve
·
Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter
·
A Letter of Peter to Philip, which was
preserved in the Nag Hammadi library
·
Apocalypse of Peter, which was
considered as genuine by many Christians as late as the 4th century
·
The
Epistula Petri, the introductory letter ascribed to
the Apostle Peter that appears at the beginning of at least one version of
the Clementine literature
Non-canonical
sayings of Peter[edit]
Miraculous catch of fish
Two
sayings are attributed to Peter in the gnostic Gospel of Thomas. In the first, Peter
compares Jesus to a "just messenger."[195] In the second, Peter
asks Jesus to "make Mary leave us, for females don't deserve life."[196] In the Apocalypse of Peter, Peter holds a
dialogue with Jesus about the parable of the fig tree and the
fate of sinners.[197] In the Gospel of Mary, whose text is largely
fragmented, Peter appears to be jealous of "Mary" (probably Mary Magdalene). He says to the other
disciples, "Did He really speak privately with a woman and not openly to
us? Are we to turn about and all listen to her? Did He
prefer her to us?"[198] In reply to this, Levi
says "Peter, you have always been hot tempered."[198] Other noncanonical texts that attribute sayings to Peter include
the Secret Book of James and the Acts of Peter.
In
the Fayyum Fragment, which dates to the end
of the 3rd century, Jesus predicts that Peter will deny him three times before
a cock crows on the following
morning. The account is similar to that of the canonical gospels, especially
the Gospel of Mark. It is unclear whether
the fragment is an abridged version of the accounts in the synoptic gospels, or a source text on
which they were based, perhaps the apocryphal Gospel of Peter.[199]
The
fragmentary Gospel of Peter contains an
account of the death of Jesus differing significantly from the canonical
gospels. It contains little information about Peter himself, except that after
the discovery of the empty tomb, "I, Simon Peter, and
Andrew my brother, took our fishing nets and went to the sea."[200]
Saint
Peter sinking on water by Eero Järnefelt
The
earliest portrait of Peter dates back to the 4th century and was located in
2010.[201] In traditional iconography, Peter has been shown very
consistently since early Christian art as an oldish thick-set man with a "slightly combative"
face and a short beard, and usually white hair, sometimes balding. He thus
contrasts with Paul the Apostle who is bald
except at the sides, with a longer beard and often black hair, and thinner in
the face. One exception to this is in Anglo-Saxon art, where he typically
lacks a beard. Both Peter and Paul are shown thus as early as the 4th
century Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter in
Rome.[202] Later in the Middle
Ages his attribute is one or two large keys
in his hand or hanging from his belt, first seen in the early 8th century.[203] More than many
medieval attributes, this continued to be depicted in the Renaissance and
afterwards. By the 15th century Peter is more likely to be bald on the top of
his head in the Western church, but he continues to have a good head of hair in
Orthodox icons.
The
depiction of Saint Peter as literally the keeper of the gates of heaven,
popular with modern cartoonists, is not found in traditional religious art, but
Peter usually heads groups of saints flanking God in heaven, on the right hand
side (viewer's left) of God. Narrative images of Peter include several scenes
from the Life of Christ where he is
mentioned in the gospels, and he is often identifiable in scenes where his
presence is not specifically mentioned. Usually he stands nearest to Christ. In
particular, depictions of the Arrest of Christ usually
include Peter cutting off the ear of one of the soldiers. Scenes without Jesus
include his distinctive martyrdom, his rescue from prison, and sometimes his
trial. In the Counter-Reformation scenes of
Peter hearing the cock crow for the third time became popular, as a
representation of repentance and hence the
Catholic sacrament of Confession or Repentance.
Medieval
mosaic of Saint Peter in the Chora Church, Istanbul
Icon
of Saint Peter and Paul
St.
Peter, holding a key and a book, depicted in a medieval Welsh manuscript,
1390–1400
Workers
|
·
Bakers
·
Bridge builders
·
Butchers
·
Fishermen
·
Harvesters
|
·
Cordwainers
·
Horologists
·
Locksmiths
·
Cobblers
|
·
Net makers
·
Shipwrights
·
Stationers
|
Called
for aid in
|
·
Frenzy
·
Foot
problems
|
·
Fever
|
·
Longevity
|
Institutions
|
·
The Papacy
·
The Patriarchate of Antioch
·
Berchtesgaden Provostry
·
Bishop Cotton Boys' School, Bangalore
|
·
Exeter College, Oxford
·
Universalist Church
|
·
Peterhouse, Cambridge, UK
·
St Peter's College, Oxford, UK
·
St Peter's College, Auckland, New Zealand
·
St Peter's School, York, UK
·
Saint Peter's University, New Jersey, USA
|
Churches
and Cathedrals
|
·
The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter,
Vatican City
·
Bath Abbey
·
York Minster
·
List of churches dedicated to St Peter
|
Locations
|
·
Apalit
·
Birżebbuġa
·
Bremen
·
Brgy. San Pedro, San Pablo City
·
Calatrava
·
Calauag
·
Calbayog City
·
Chartres
·
Chimbote
·
Cologne
·
Davao
·
Dunajská Streda
·
Hinton on the Green
·
Ilovik i Sveti Petar
·
Jackson
·
Köpenick
|
·
Las Vegas
·
Leuven
·
Leiden
·
Lessines
·
Maralal
·
Marquette
·
Moissac
·
Naumburg
·
Obermarsberg
·
Peterborough
·
Philadelphia
·
Poznań
·
Providence
·
Pubnico
|
·
Regensburg
·
Rio Grande do Sul
·
Rome
·
Póvoa de Varzim
·
Saint Petersburg
·
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
·
San Pedro, Laguna
·
San Pedro Soloma
·
Scranton
·
Seixal Municipality
·
Sunderland
·
Sintra
·
Sint-Pieters-Rode
·
Tielt
·
Toa Baja
·
Trier
·
Umbria
·
Worms
|
Many
Protestant scholars accept the traditional story of Peter's martyrdom in Rome.
Some Protestants, however, have rejected Peter's martyrdom as a later
invention, arguing that evidence of Peter exists only in biblical accounts.
It
has also been suggested that there was a serious division between Peter's Jewish Christian party and Paul's
Hellenizing party, seen in e.g. the Incident at Antioch, which later
Christian accounts have downplayed.[204]
Another
revisionist view was developed by supporters of the Christ myth theory, which holds that
the figure of Peter is largely a development from some mythological doorkeeper
figures. According to Arthur Drews and G. A. Wells, if there was a historical
Peter, then all that is known about him is the brief mentions in Galatians.[205][206]
·
Depictions
of Saint Peter
·
Saint
Peter Attempting to Walk on Water, by François Boucher, 1766
·
The
Release of St. Peter by Bernardo Strozzi, 1635
·
Jesus
gives Peter the keys to Heavenby Pieter Paul Rubens, 1614
·
Peter
Enthroned, by Arnolfo di Cambio(13th-century statue in St Peter's Basilica, Rome)
·
The
Miraculous Draught of Fishes, by Raphael, 1515
·
Jesus
calling Simon Peter and Andrewby Duccio di Buoninsegna, 1308-1311
·
An
apparition of the Apostle Peter to Saint Peter Nolasco, by Francisco Zurbarán, 1629
·
Alessandro Turchi, Saint Agatha
Attended by Saint Peter and an Angel in Prison
·
Fresco
by Pietro Perugino in the Sistine Chapel
·
List of Catholic saints
·
List of popes
·
Peter and Paul
·
Quo Vadis
·
Saint Peter and Islam
·
Saint Peter and Judaism
·
Saint Peter's Square
·
Saint Peter's tomb
·
San Pietro in Vincoli
·
St. Peter's Basilica
·
Sword of Saint Peter
1.
^ a b c O'Connor,
Daniel William (2013). "Saint Peter the Apostle". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. p. 5.
Retrieved 12 April 2013.
2.
^ a b c d "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: St. Peter, Prince of the
Apostles". www.newadvent.org.
3.
^ "NPNF-212. Leo the Great, Gregory the Great -
Christian Classics Ethereal Library". www.ccel.org.
4.
^ Jn 1:42
5.
^ Matthew 16:16
6.
^ Mark 5:37
7.
^ Luke 22:54–62
8.
^ Acts 2:14–40
9.
^ a b Dale Martin 2009 (lecture). "24. Apocalyptic and Accommodation" on YouTube. Yale University. Accessed July 22,
2013. Lecture 24 (transcript).
10. ^ Chapman, Henry Palmer (1913). "Fathers of the Church" .
In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert
Appleton Company.
11.
^ Thomas
Patrick Halton, On Illustrious Men, v. 100, CUA
Press, 1999, pp 5–7 ISBN 0-8132-0100-4.
12. ^ "The Early Church Fathers",
Chapter 1, New Advent
13.
^ Wilson,
Robert McLachlan (5 April 1979). "Text and Interpretation: Studies in the New
Testament Presented to Matthew Black". Cambridge
University Press – via Google Books.
14.
^ "Strong's Greek: 2786. Κηφᾶς (Képhas) -- "a
rock," Cephas, a name given to the apostle Peter". biblehub.com.
15.
^ "Strong's Greek: 4074.
Πέτρος (Petros) -- "a stone" or "a
boulder," Peter, one of the twelve apostles". biblehub.com.
16.
^ Siecienski, A. Edward (12 January 2017). "The Papacy and the Orthodox: Sources and History of
a Debate". Oxford University Press – via Google Books.
17.
^ Jastrow, Marcus (20 February 1903). "A dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and
Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic literature". London : Luzac – via Internet
Archive.
18.
^ "A Dictionary of the Dialects of Vernacular Syriac:
As Spoken by the Eastern Syrians of Kurdistan ..." Clarendon.
20 February 1901 – via Internet Archive.
19.
^ Pesch, Rudolf (1980). Simon-Petrus. Hiersemann,
Stuttgart. p. 29
20.
^ The Teaching of Simon Cephas in the City of Rome; The Diatessaron
21. ^ a b c d e f "Peter, St.
" F. L., Cross, The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church,
Oxford University Press, 2005
22.
^ His
father's name is given as 'Jonah',[Jn. 1:42] [Matt. 16:17] although some
manuscripts of John give his father's name as John.
23.
^ Collins,
Raymond F. (22 November 2013). "Accompanied by a Believing Wife: Ministry and
Celibacy in the Earliest Christian Communities".
Liturgical Press – via Google Books.
24.
^ "2BackToHomePage3".
25.
^ Matt. 26:51, Mk. 14:47, Lk. 22:50
26.
^ Harrington, Daniel J. "Peter
the Rock." America, August 18–25, 2008. Accessed Oct. 9,
2009: p. 30.
27.
^ "What did Jesus mean when he said, "Upon this
rock I will build my church"?". Bible.org.
Retrieved 10 February 2015.
28. ^ Rienecker, Fritz; Rogers, Cleon (1976). Linguistic
key to the Greek New Testament. Grand Rapids MI: Regency Reference Library (Zondervan Publishing House).
p. 49. ISBN 978-0-310-32050-0.
29. ^ a b May, Herbert G.
and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977.
30.
^ 1Cor 15
31.
^ 1Cor 15:3–7
32.
^ See Matthew 28:8–10, John 20:16 and Luke 24:13–16.
33.
^ Matt. 10:2–4, Mk. 3:16–19, Lk. 6:14–16
34.
^ Matthew
17:1; Mark 9:2; Luke 9:28
35.
^ Mark
5:37; Luke 8:51
36.
^ Matthew
26:37; Mark 14:33
37.
^ Matthew
15:15; 19:27; Luke 12:41; John 6:67–68
38. ^ a b "Sermon by Leo the Great (440–461)".
Ccel.org. 2005-07-13. Retrieved 2010-09-12.
39.
^ "Archbishop Stylianos of Australia".
Retrieved 2010-09-12.
40.
^ "Patriarch H.H.Ignatius Zakka I Iwas".
Syrianchurch.org. Retrieved 2010-09-12.
41.
^ "Syriac Orthodox Church in Canada – Identity of the
Church".
42.
^ Myllykoski, Matti. "James the Just in History and Tradition:
Perspectives of Past and Present Scholarship (Part I)".
Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies, Finland.
Retrieved 2014-04-02. James the Just, the brother of Jesus, is known
from the New Testament as the chief apostle of the Torah-obedient Christians.
43.
^ "Church History Book II, Chapter I, quoting Clement
of Alexandria's Sixth book of Hypotyposes".
Newadvent.org. Retrieved 2010-09-12.
44.
^ "Bible Gateway passage: Acts 1 - New Revised
Standard Version". Bible Gateway.
Retrieved 2017-11-30.
45.
^ "Bible Gateway passage: Acts 5 - New Revised
Standard Version". Bible Gateway.
Retrieved 2017-11-30.
46.
^ "Bible Gateway passage: Acts 3 - New Revised
Standard Version". Bible Gateway.
Retrieved 2017-11-30.
47. ^ a b "Bible Gateway passage: Acts 9 - New Revised
Standard Version". Bible Gateway.
Retrieved 2017-11-30.
48.
^ "Bible Gateway passage: Acts 10 - New Revised
Standard Version". Bible Gateway.
Retrieved 2017-11-30.
49.
^ Vidmar, John (July 2005). John Vidmar, The Catholic Church through the ages: a
history. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-0-8091-4234-7.
Retrieved 2010-09-12.
50.
^ see Incident at Antioch; see also the
section below headed "Road to Rome: Antioch and Corinth"
51.
^ Harris, Stephen L. (2010). Understanding the Bible (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 420. ISBN 978-0-07-340744-9. "Christian
Pharisees demand that the entire Torah be kept, but Peter reportedly opposes
this ([Acts] 15:10) and ... silences the Judaizers."
52.
^ a b Franzen, p.26
53. ^ a b 16
54. ^ a b "Paul,
St" Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of
the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
55. ^ a b Pennington, p. 2
56. ^ a b "Papal Basilica – Saint Paul Outside-the-Walls".
Archived from the original on 20 July 2009.
57. ^ a b Historians debate
whether the Roman government distinguished between Christians and Jews prior to
Nerva's modification of the Fiscus Judaicus in 96. From then
on, practising Jews paid the tax, Christians did not
58. ^ a b Wylen, pp.190–192
59. ^ a b Dunn, pp. 33–34
60.
^ Louise
Ropes Loomis, The Book of Popes (Liber Pontificalis). Merchantville, NJ: Evolution
Publishing. ISBN 1-889758-86-8 (Reprint of the 1916
edition).
61.
^ This
is provided in Downey, A History of Antioch, pp.
583–586. This evidence is accepted by M. Lapidge,
among others, see Bischoff and Lapidge, Biblical
Commentaries from the Canterbury School (Cambridge, 1994) p. 16.
Lastly, see Finegan, The Archaeology of the
New Testament, pp. 63–71.
62.
^ Origen's
homilies on Luke VI, 4. Patrologia Graeca 13:1814
63.
^ Eusebius. "Church History Book III, Chapter 36".
Retrieved 1 June 2015.
64.
^ Eusebius,
in his Chronicle (A.D. 303) [Chronicle, 44 A.D. Patrologia Graeca 19:539].
65.
^ Eusebius. "Church History Book III Chapter 36:2".
newadvent.org. Retrieved 5 June2015.
66.
^ Eusebius. "Church History Book III Chapter 22".
newadvent.org. Retrieved 5 June2015.
67.
^ Eusebius. "Church History Book I, Chapter 12:2".
Retrieved 1 June 2015.
68.
^ (ἡ δ᾿ ἱστορία παρὰ Κλήμεντι κατὰ τὴν πέμπτην τῶν Ὑποτυπώσεων· ἐν ᾗ καὶ Κηφᾶν, περὶ οὗ φησιν ὁ Παῦλος· «ὅτε δὲ ἦλθεν Κηφᾶς εἰς Ἀντιόχειαν, κατὰ πρόσωπον αὐτῷ ἀντέστην», ἕνα φησὶ γεγονέναι τῶν ἑβδομήκοντα μαθητῶν, ὁμώνυμον Πέτρῳ τυγχάνοντα τῷ ἀποστόλῳ.)
69.
^ Homilies,
2.1; Recognitions, 2.1
70.
^ Lapham, An
Introduction to the New Testament Apocrypha (London: T&T Clark
International, 2003), p. 76
71.
^ Eusebius. "Church History Book II, Chapter 14–15".
Retrieved 1 June 2015.
72.
^ Lapham, Introduction,
p. 72
73.
^ "The Acts of Peter".
74.
^ of
Corinth, Dionysius. "Fragments from a Letter to the Roman Church Chapter
III". www.earlychristianwritings.com. Retrieved 1
June 2015.
75.
^ "ANF01. The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and
Irenaeus".
76. ^ a b Eusebius of
Caesarea. "Church History Book VI, Chapter 14:6".
Retrieved 1 June 2015.
77. ^ a b c saint,
Jerome. "De Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men) Chapter
1". newadvent.org.
Retrieved 5 June 2015.
78.
^ Lucius
Caecilius Firmianus, Lactantius. "Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died Chapter
2". ccel.org. Retrieved 1
June 2015.
79.
^ "Was Peter in Rome?".
Catholic Answers. 10 August 2004. Archived from the original on 7 December 2013.
Retrieved 9 November 2014. if Peter
never made it to the capital, he still could have been the first pope, since
one of his successors could have been the first holder of that office to settle
in Rome. After all, if the papacy exists, it was established by Christ during
his lifetime, long before Peter is said to have reached Rome. There must have
been a period of some years in which the papacy did not yet have its connection
to Rome.
80.
^ Brown,
Raymond E. & Meier, John P. (1983). Antioch and Rome: New Testament
Cradles of Christianity. Paulist Press. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-8091-0339-3. As for Peter, we
have no knowledge at all of when he came to Rome and what he did there before
he was martyred. Certainly he was not the original missionary who
brought Christianity to Rome (and therefore not the founder of the church of Rome in that sense). There is no serious proof
that he was the bishop (or local ecclesiastical officer) of the Roman church—a
claim not made till the third century. Most likely he did not spend any major
time at Rome before 58 when Paul wrote to the Romans, and so it may have been
only in the 60s and relatively shortly before his martyrdom that Peter came to
the capital.
81.
^ Cullmann, Oscar (1962). Peter: Disciple,
Apostle, Martyr, 2nd ed. Westminster Press. p. 234. In the New
Testament [Jerusalem] is the only church of which we hear that Peter stood at its
head. Of other episcopates of Peter we know nothing certain. Concerning
Antioch, indeed… there is a tradition, first appearing in the course of the
second century, according to which Peter was its bishop. The assertion that he
was Bishop of Rome we first find at a much later time. From the second half of
the second century we do possess texts that mention the apostolic foundation of
Rome, and at this time, which is indeed rather late,
this foundation is traced back to Peter and Paul, an assertion that cannot be
supported historically. Even here, however, nothing is said as yet of an
episcopal office of Peter.
82.
^ Chadwick,
Henry (1993). The Early Church, rev. ed. Penguin Books.
p. 18. No doubt Peter's presence in Rome in the sixties must indicate
a concern for Gentile Christianity, but we have no information whatever about
his activity or the length of his stay there. That he
was in Rome for twenty-five years is third-century legend.
83.
^ J.N.D.
Kelly, Oxford Dictionary of the Popes (Oxford University
Press, 1996), p. 6. "Ignatius assumed that Peter and Paul wielded special
authority over the Roman church, while Irenaeus claimed that they jointly
founded it and inaugurated its succession of bishops. Nothing, however, is
known of their constitutional roles, least of all Peter's as presumed leader of
the community."
84.
^ Building
Unity, Ecumenical Documents IV (Paulist Press, 1989), p. 130. "There
is increasing agreement that Peter went to Rome and was martyred there, but we
have no trustworthy evidence that Peter ever served as the supervisor or bishop
of the local church in Rome."
85.
^ "most
scholars, both Catholic and Protestant, concur that Peter died in Rome"
Keener, Craig S., The Gospel of Matthew: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary,
p. 425, n. 74, 2009 Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company
86.
^ O'Connor,
Daniel William (2013). "Saint Peter the Apostle". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. p. 5.
Retrieved 12 April 2013. [M]any scholars… accept Rome as the
location of the martyrdom and the reign of Nero as the time.
87. ^ a b c d Pieter Willem van der Horst, review of
Otto Zwierlein, Petrus in Rom: die literarischen Zeugnisse. Mit einer kritischen
Edition der Martyrien des Petrus und Paulus auf neuer handschriftlicher Grundlage, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter,
2009, in Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2010.03.25.
88.
^ a b Bloggers,
Staff. ""Petrus im Rom" or Peter in Rome revisited".
89.
^ "1 Peter 5 KJV". biblehub.com.
90.
^ Zwierlein, Otto (20 February 2010). "Petrus in Rom". Walter de Gruyter – via Google Books.
91.
^ Zwierlein, Otto: Petrus und Paulus in Jerusalem und
Rom. Vom Neuen Testament zu den apokryphen Apostelakten. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter,
2013. ISBN 978-3110303315.
92.
^ James Dunn, review of Zwierlein 2009, in Review of Biblical Literature 2010.
93.
^ Siecienski, A. Edward (20 February 2017). "The Papacy and the Orthodox: Sources and History of
a Debate". Oxford University Press – via Google Books.
94.
^ "Has St. Peter ever been in Rome?" (PDF).
95.
^ http://rosetta.reltech.org/TC/v17/TC-2012-Rev-Heid-Bockmuehl.pdf
96.
^ Kok, Michael J. (19 June 2017). "Otto Zwierlein on the Traditions about Peter in
Rome".
97.
^ "THE PRIMACY OF PETER". 7
August 2017.
98.
^ Harris, Stephen L. (2010). Understanding the Bible (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 381. ISBN 978-0-07-340744-9. "[John's]
Gospel is commonly divided into a prologue (1:1–51); a Book of Signs ...
(2:1–11:57); the Book of Glory ... (12:1–20:31); and an epilogue
(21:1–25)."
99.
^ Robinson,
D. F., 'Where and When did Peter die?', Journal of Biblical Literature Vol.
64 (1945), supported by Smaltz, W. M., Did Peter die
in Jerusalem?, Journal of Biblical Literature Vol.
71, No. 4 (Dec., 1952), pp. 211–216. Accessed 31 August 2015.
100. ^ Caius. "Ante-Nicene Fathers Vol. V, Fragments of
Caius" – via Wikisource.
101. ^ Ignatius
of Antioch. "The Epistle of Ignatius to the Romans". newadvent.org. Retrieved 15 August 2016.
102. ^ Rainer
Riesner, Paul's Early Period: Chronology,
Mission Strategy, Theology (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1998) p65
103. ^ Apocryphal Acts of Peter Chapter 37.
104. ^ Kirsch, Johann Peter (1911). "St. Peter" . In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
105. ^ of Rome, Clement. "The First Epistle of Clement to the
Corinthians". earlychristianwritings.com.
Retrieved 1 June 2015.
106. ^ Quintus
Septimius Florens,
Tertullian. "Prescription Against Heretics Chapter XXXVI".
ccel.org. Retrieved 1 June 2015. "Since,
moreover, you are close upon Italy, you have Rome,
from which there comes even into our own hands the very authority (of apostles
themselves). How happy is its church, on which apostles poured forth all their
doctrine along with their blood; where Peter endures a passion like his Lord's;
where Paul wins his crown in a death like John's[the Baptist]; where the
Apostle John was first plunged, unhurt, into boiling oil, and thence remitted
to his island-exile."
107. ^ Quintus
Septimius Florens,
Tertullian. "Scorpiace Chapter 15". newadvent.org. Retrieved 6 June 2015.
108. ^ Granger
Ryan & Helmut Ripperger, The
Golden Legend Of Jacobus De Voragine Part One,
1941.
109. ^ of Alexandria, Peter. "Canonical Epistle on Penitence Canon 9".
newadvent.org. Retrieved 3 June 2015.
110. ^ The Acts of Peter, by M. R. James
111. ^ Flavius,
Josephus. "Jewish War, Book V Chapter 11".
ccel.org. Retrieved 1 June2015.
112. ^ The Holy Bible, according to the authorized version (A.D.
1611) – Frederic Charles Cook – J. Murray,
1881 – page 350
113. ^ Vatican
Cardinal Angelo Comastri (interviewee)
(2011). Secret Access: The Vatican(Video) (in
English and Italian). Vatican City, Rome, Italy: A&E Studio Entertainment.
Event occurs at 94 minutes. This is the holiest site in the Basilica,
where the Apostle Peter was crucified and his blood shed to the ground
114. ^ presbyter, Caius (Gaius). "Dialogue or Disputation Against Proclus (A.D. 198)
in Eusebius, Church History Book II Chapter 25:6–7". newadvent.org. Retrieved 1 June2015.
115. ^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Tomb of St. Peter".
116. ^ "The Papacy and the Vatican Palace".
117. ^ Wall,
J. Charles. (1912), Porches and Fonts. Pub. London: Wells
Gardner and Darton. P. 295; "Venerable Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis
Anglorum: The Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Book III, Chapter
29". Fordham.edu. Retrieved 2010-09-12.
118. ^ Walsh, The
Bones of St. Peter: A 1st Full Account of the Search for the Apostle's Body
119. ^ Finegan, The Archeology
of the New Testament, pp. 368–370.
120. ^ "The Bones of St. Peter".
Saintpetersbasilica.org. Retrieved 2010-09-12.
121. ^ Associated Press (2013-11-24). "Vatican displays Saint Peter's bones for the first
time". The Guardian. Retrieved 2013-11-24.
122. ^ Harris, Stephen L. (2010). Understanding the Bible (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 477. ISBN 978-0-07-340744-9. "'Babylon'
became the Christian code name for Rome after Titus destroyed Jerusalem, thus
duplicating the Babylonians’ demolition of the holy city (587 BCE)."
123. ^ Meyers,
Carol (2001-08-28). Women in scripture: a dictionary of named and unnamed women
in the Hebrew. ISBN 9780802849625.
124. ^
·
L. Michael White, Understanding the Book of Revelation, PBS
·
Helmut Köster, Introduction to the New Testament, Volume 2,
260
·
Pheme Perkins, First and Second Peter, James, and Jude, 16
·
James L. Resseguie, Revelation
unsealed: a narrative critical approach to John's Apocalypse, 138
·
Watson
E. Mills, Mercer Commentary on the New Testament, 1340
·
Nancy
McDarby, The Collegeville Bible Handbook, 349
·
Carol
L. Meyers, Toni Craven, Ross Shepard Kraemer Women in scripture: a dictionary of named and unnamed
women in the Hebrew, p. 528
·
David
M. Carr, Colleen M. Conway, Introduction to the Bible: Sacred Texts and Imperial
Contexts, 353
·
Larry
Joseph Kreitzer Gospel images in fiction and film: on reversing the
hermeneutical flow, 61
·
By
Mary Beard, John A. North, S. R. F. Price Religions of Rome: A history,
·
David
M. Rhoads, From every people and nation: the book of Revelation in
intercultural perspective, 174
·
Charles
T. Chapman, The message of the book of Revelation,
114
·
Norman
Cheadle, The ironic apocalypse in the novels of Leopoldo Marechal,
36
·
Peter
M. J. Stravinskas, The Catholic answer book, Volume 1, 18
·
Catherine
Keller, God and power: counter-apocalyptic journeys, 59
·
Brian
K. Blount, Revelation: A Commentary, 346
·
Frances
Carey, The Apocalypse and the shape of things to come, 138
·
Richard
Dellamora, Postmodern apocalypse: theory and cultural
practice at the end, 117
·
A.
N. Wilson, Paul: The Mind of the Apostle, 11
·
Gerd Theissen, John Bowden,
Fortress introduction to the New Testament, 166
125. ^ 2
Esdras/4 Esdras; see the article on the naming conventions of the Books of
Ezra
126. ^ "Bible, King James Version".
127. ^ "THE BOOK OF THE APOCALYPSE OF BARUCH THE".
128. ^ "Book V."
129. ^ Grabbe, Lester L.; Haak,
Robert D. (2003-01-01). Knowing the End From the Beginning. google.ca. ISBN 9780567084620.
130. ^ Feldmeier, Reinhard
(2008). The First Letter of Peter. google.ca. ISBN 9781602580244.
131. ^ (the
King James Version Bible—the New International Version Bible uses the words
"seven hills")
132. ^ Wall,
R. W. (1991). New International biblical commentary: Revelation (207). Peabody,
MA: Hendrickson Publishers.
133. ^ Bratcher,
R. G., & Hatton, H. (1993). A handbook on the Revelation to John. UBS
handbook series; Helps for translators (248). New York: United Bible Societies.
134. ^ Davis,
C. A. (2000). Revelation. The College Press NIV commentary (322). Joplin, Mo.:
College Press Pub.
135. ^ Mounce, R. H. (1997). The Book of Revelation. The New
International Commentary on the New Testament (315). Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B.
Eerdmans Publishing Co.
136. ^ Beckwith,
Isbon T. The Apocalypse of John. New York: MacMillan,
1919; reprinted, Eugene: Wipf and Stock Publishers,
2001.
137. ^ Criswell,
David (2002-10-01). She Who Restores the Roman Empire. google.ca. ISBN 9780595249282.
138. ^ "Babylon in the New Testament". International
Standard Bible Encyclopedia Online.
139. ^ Strabo.
Geography 16.1.5
140. ^ Eusebius. "Church History Book II Chapter 15:2".
hypotyposeis.org & newadvent.org. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
141. ^ Brown,
Raymond E., Introduction to the New Testament,
Anchor Bible, 1997, ISBN 0-385-24767-2. p. 767 "the pseudonymity of II Pet is more certain than that of any
other NT work."
142. ^ a b Joyce,
G. H. (1913). "Pope" . In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert
Appleton Company.
143. ^ Wilken,
p. 281, quote: "Some (Christian communities) had been founded by Peter,
the disciple Jesus designated as the founder of his church. ... Once the
position was institutionalized, historians looked back and recognized Peter as
the first pope of the Christian church in Rome"
144. ^ "Greek New Testament" Greek
New Testament. John xxi 11 Jun. 2010.
145. ^ Allen
C. Myers, ed. (1987). "Aramaic". The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary.
Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-8028-2402-8. It is generally
agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Palestine in the first century
AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished
from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73)
146. ^ "Peshitta Matthew 16" (PDF).
147. ^ "Strong's Greek: 2786. Κηφᾶς (Képhas) – 9 Occurrences".
148. ^ "John 1:42 Greek Text Analysis".
149. ^ [biblehub.com/greek/2786.htm Cephas (Aramaic for rock)]
150. ^ (Hebrew: כֵּיפׇא
\ כֵּיף) is an indirect transliteration of the Syriac (ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ), (Greek: Κηφᾶς) is a direct transliteration of the Syriac (ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ), and (Hebrew: כֵּיפׇא
\ כֵּיף) is a direct transliteration of the Greek. The
Hebrew word (Hebrew: כאפא)
is also a direct transliteration of the Syriac. (cƒ. Interlinear
Peshitta Aramaic New Testament BibleMatthew xvi. 18 Archived 24 August 2011 at
the Wayback Machine).
151. ^ "Archived copy". Archived
from the original on 19 November 2011.
Retrieved 12 September 2010. "And what does Kepha mean? It means a rock, the same as petra (It doesn't mean a little
stone or a pebble) What Jesus said to Simon in Matthew 16:18 was this: 'You are
Kepha, and on this kepha I
will build my Church.'
152. ^ Basil
li. De poenit. cƒ.
Matth. v. 14 ; Luke
xxii. 19
153. ^ a b "Peter the Rock".
Catholic.com. 10 August 2004. Archived from the original on 19 November 2011.
Retrieved 12 September 2010.
154. ^ "The Preaching of Mattai, chapter 16" (PDF), Peshitta Aramaic/English Interlinear New Testament,
retrieved 2014-04-02
155. ^ Veselin Kesich
(1992). "Peter's Primacy in the New Testament and the Early
Tradition" in The Primacy of Peter. St.
Vladimir's Seminary Press. pp. 61–6.
156. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church,
Articles 424 and 552
157. ^ "On Becoming a Pebble: The Name God Gave Simon". spectrummagazine.org.
158. ^ "Did Jesus really say he would build his church on
Peter? Petros or Petra?".
159. ^ Patrick Madrid, Bam! Bam! The "Pebbles"
Argument Goes Down or Catholic Answers Magazine, Peter the Rock
160. ^ translation by R.C. Seaton of Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 3:1365–1367:
λάζετο
δ᾽ ἐκ πεδίοιο μέγαν
περιηγέα πέτρον,
δεινὸν Ἐνυαλίου σόλον
Ἄρεος: οὔ κέ
μιν
ἄνδρες
αἰζηοὶ πίσυρες
γαίης
ἄπο τυτθὸν ἄειραν.
161. ^ Chadwick, The Early Christian Church. p.237 p.238
162. ^ Mathison, Keith A., The Shape of Sola Scriptura, pp.
184–5.
163. ^ "Peter's Primacy". Archived
from the original on 18 October 2012.
164. ^ Rykle Borger, "Remarks of an Outsider about Bauer's Worterbuch, BAGD, BDAG, and Their Textual Basis,"
Biblical Greek Language and Lexicography: Essays in Honor of Frederick W.
Danker, Bernard A. Tayler (et al. eds.) pp. 32–47.
165. ^ "WELS Topical Q&A: Responses to previous
questions". Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. 8
August 2013. Archived from the original on 8 August 2013.
Retrieved 5 October 2015.
166. ^ a b c Monday, Dec.
07, 1953 (1953-12-07). "Religion: Peter & the Rock".
TIME. Retrieved 2010-09-12.
167. ^ D.
A. Carson in The Expositor's Bible
Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984).
168. ^ Jesus,
Peter & the Keys: A Scriptural Handbook on the Papacy
169. ^ "The Doctrine of Church and Ministry in the Life of
the Church Today" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3
February 2015.
170. ^ "Cross-Cultural And Multicultural Ministry In the
New Testament" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3
February 2015.
171. ^ "SOME THOUGHTS ON MATTHEW 16:18".
172. ^ Eckert,
Harold H. "The Specific Functions of the Church in the
World" (PDF). Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary. Archived
from the original (PDF) on 3
February 2015. Retrieved 4 February 2015.
173. ^ John Meyendorff, et al. (1963), The
Primacy of Peter in the Orthodox Church (St. Vladimir's Seminary Press,
Crestwood NY, ISBN 978-0-88141-125-6)
174. ^ Holy
Apostles Convent (1999) The Orthodox
New Testament, Vol. I: The Holy Gospels (Dormition
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