Satanism
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For other uses, see Satanism
(disambiguation).
The
inverted pentagramcircumscribed
by a circle (a pentacle) is often used
to represent Satanism
Satanism is a group of ideological and philosophical beliefs based on Satan.
Contemporary religious practice of Satanism began with the founding of
the Church of Satan in
1966, although a few historical precedents exist. Prior to the public practice,
Satanism existed primarily as an accusation by various Christian groups toward perceived
ideological opponents, rather than a self-identity. Satanism, and the concept of Satan,
has also been used by artists and entertainers for symbolic expression.
Accusations that various
groups have been practicing Satanism have been made throughout much of
Christian history. During the Middle Ages, the Inquisition attached to the Roman Catholic Church alleged
that various heretical Christian sects and groups, such as the Knights Templar and the Cathars, performed secret Satanic rituals. In
the subsequent Early Modern period,
belief in a widespread Satanic conspiracy of witches resulted in mass
trials of alleged witches across Europe and the North American
colonies. Accusations that Satanic conspiracies were active, and behind events
such as Protestantism (and
conversely, the Protestant claim that the Pope was the Antichrist)
and the French Revolution continued
to be made in Christendom during the eighteenth to the twentieth century. The
idea of a vast Satanic conspiracy reached new heights with the
influential Taxil hoax of
France in the 1890s, which claimed that Freemasonryworshiped Satan, Lucifer, and Baphomet in their rituals. In the 1980s
and 1990s, the Satanic ritual abuse hysteria
spread through the United States and United Kingdom, amid fears that groups of
Satanists were regularly sexually abusing and murdering children in their
rites. In most of these cases, there is no corroborating evidence that any of
those accused of Satanism were actually practitioners of a Satanic religion or
guilty of the allegations leveled at them.
Since the 19th century,
various small religious groups have emerged that identify as Satanists or use
Satanic iconography. Satanist groups that appeared after the 1960s are widely
diverse, but two major trends are theistic Satanism and atheistic Satanism.
Theistic Satanists venerate Satan as a supernatural deity,
viewing him not as omnipotent but rather as a patriarch. In contrast, atheistic Satanists
regard Satan as merely a symbol of certain human traits.[1]
Contemporary religious
Satanism is predominantly an American phenomenon, the ideas spreading elsewhere
with the effects of globalization and the Internet.[2] The Internet
spreads awareness of other Satanists, and is also the main battleground for
Satanist disputes.[2] Satanism started to
reach Central and
Eastern Europe in the 1990s, in time with the fall of the Soviet Union, and most noticeably in Poland and Lithuania, predominantly Roman Catholic
countries.[3][4]
Contents
·
2Antagonism
towards Satanism
o 2.1Medieval and
Early Modern Christendom
o 2.218th to 20th
century Christendom
o 2.3Satanic ritual
abuse hysteria
o 4.1Forerunners and
early forms
§ 4.2.1LaVeyan Satanism
and the Church of Satan
Definition
Saint Wolfgang and
the Devil,
by Michael Pacher.
In their study of
Satanism, the religious studies scholars
Asbjørn Dyrendal, James R. Lewis,
and Jesper Aa. Petersen stated that the term Satanism "has
a history of being a designation made by people against those whom they
dislike; it is a term used for 'othering'".[5] The concept of
Satanism is an invention of Christianity, for it relies upon the figure of
Satan, a character deriving from Christian mythology.[6]
Elsewhere, Petersen noted
that "Satanism as something others do is very different from Satanism as a
self-designation".[7] Eugene Gallagher
noted that, as commonly used, Satanism was usually
"a polemical, not a descriptive term".[8]
Etymology
The word
"Satan" was not originally a proper name but rather an ordinary noun
meaning "the adversary"; in this context it appears at several points
in the Old Testament.[9] For instance, in
the Book of Samuel, David is
presented as the satan ("adversary") of the Philistines, while in the Book of Numbers the term appears as a
verb, when God sent an angel to satan ("to
oppose") Balaam.[10] Prior to the
composition of the New Testament, the
idea developed within Jewish communities that Satan was the name of an angel
who had rebelled against God and had been cast out of Heaven along with his
followers; this account would be incorporated into contemporary texts like
the Book of Enoch.[11]This Satan was then
featured in parts of the New Testament, where he was presented as a figure who
tempted humans to commit sin; in the Book of Matthew and the Book of Luke, he attempted to tempt Jesus of Nazareth as the latter fasted in
the wilderness.[12]
The word
"Satanism" was adopted into English from the French satanisme.[13] The terms
"Satanism" and "Satanist" are first recorded as appearing
in the English and French languages during the sixteenth century, when they
were used by Christian groups to attack other, rival Christian groups.[14] In a Roman Catholic tract of 1565, the author
condemns the "heresies, blasphemies, and sathanismes [sic]" of
the Protestants.[13] In an Anglican work of 1559, Anabaptists and other Protestant sects
are condemned as "swarmes of Satanistes [sic]".[13] As used in this
manner, the term "Satanism" was not used to claim that people
literally worshipped Satan, but rather presented the view that through
deviating from what the speaker or writer regarded as the true variant of
Christianity, they were regarded as being essentially in league with the Devil.[15] During the
nineteenth century, the term "Satanism" began to be used to describe
those considered to lead a broadly immoral lifestyle,[15] and it was only in
the late nineteenth century that it came to be applied in English to
individuals who were believed to consciously and deliberately venerate Satan.[15] This latter meaning
had appeared earlier in the Swedish language; the Lutheran Bishop Laurentius
Paulinus Gothus had described devil-worshipping sorcerers
as Sathanister in his Ethica
Christiana, produced between 1615 and 1630.[16]
Antagonism towards Satanism
Historical and
anthropological research suggests that nearly all societies have developed the
idea of a sinister and anti-human force that can hide itself within society.[17] This commonly
involves a belief in witches, a group of
individuals who invert the norms of their society and seek to harm their
community, for instance by engaging in incest, murder, and cannibalism.[18] Allegations of
witchcraft may have different causes and serve different functions within a
society.[19] For instance, they
may serve to uphold social norms,[20] to heighten the
tension in existing conflicts between individuals,[20] or to scapegoat
certain individuals for various social problems.[19]
Another contributing
factor to the idea of Satanism is the concept that there is an agent of
misfortune and evil who operates on a cosmic scale,[21] something usually
associated with a strong form of ethical dualism that divides the world clearly
into forces of good and forces of evil.[22] The earliest such
entity known is Angra Mainyu, a
figure that appears in the Persian religion of Zoroastrianism.[23] This concept was
also embraced by Judaism and early
Christianity, and although it was soon marginalised within Jewish thought, it
gained increasing importance within early Christian understandings of the
cosmos.[24] While the early
Christian idea of the Devil was not well developed, it gradually adapted and
expanded through the creation of folklore, art, theological treatises, and
morality tales, thus providing the character with a range of extra-Biblical
associations.[25]
Medieval
and Early Modern Christendom
Title
illustration of Johannes
Praetorius (writer) Blocksbergs Verrichtung (1668)
showing many traditional features of the medieval Witches' Sabbath
See also: European witchcraft, Maleficium (sorcery),
and Witch-cult hypothesis
As Christianity expanded
throughout the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe, it came into contact
with a variety of other religions, which it regarded as "pagan". Christian theologians claimed
that the gods and goddesses venerated by these "pagans" were not
genuine divinities, but were actually demons.[26] However, they did
not believe that "pagans" were deliberately devil-worshippers,
instead claiming that they were simply misguided.[27] In Christian
iconography, the Devil and demons were given the physical traits of figures
from Classical mythology such
as the god Pan, fauns,
and satyrs.[27]
Those Christian groups
regarded as heretics by the Roman Catholic Church were
treated differently, with theologians arguing that they were deliberately
worshipping the Devil.[28]This was accompanied by
claims that such individuals engaged in incestuous sexual orgies, murdered
infants, and committed acts of cannibalism, all stock accusations that had
previously been leveled at Christians themselves in the Roman Empire.[29] The first recorded
example of such an accusation being made within Western Christianity took
place in Toulouse in 1022, when two clerics were
tried for allegedly venerating a demon.[30]Throughout the middle
ages, this accusation would be applied to a wide range of Christian heretical
groups, including the Paulicians, Bogomils, Cathars, Waldensians, and the Hussites.[31] The Knights Templar were accused of
worshipping an idol known
as Baphomet, with Lucifer having appeared at
their meetings in the form of a cat.[32] As well as these
Christian groups, these claims were also made Europe's Jewish community.[33] In the thirteenth
century, there were also references made to a group of "Luciferians"
led by a woman named Lucardis which hoped to see Satan rule in Heaven.
References to this group continued into the fourteenth century, although
historians studying the allegations concur that these Luciferians were likely a
fictitious invention.[34]
Within Christian thought,
the idea developed that certain individuals could make a pact with Satan.[35] This may have
emerged after observing that pacts with gods and goddesses played a role in
various pre-Christian belief systems, or that such pacts were also made as part
of the Christian cult of saints.[36] Another possibility
is that it derives from a misunderstanding of Augustine of Hippo's
condemnation of augury in his On the Christian Doctrine, written in the late fourth
century. Here, he stated that people who consulted augurs were entering "quasi
pacts" (covenants) with demons.[37] The idea of the
diabolical pact made with demons was popularised across Europe in the story
of Faust, likely based in part on the real
life Johann Georg Faust.[38]
The Obscene Kiss, an illustration of
witches kissing the Devil's anus from Francesco Maria
Guazzo's Compendium Maleficarum (1608).
As the late medieval gave
way to the early modern period,
European Christendom experienced a schism between the established Roman
Catholic Church and the breakaway Protestant movement. In the ensuing Reformation and Counter-Reformation,
both Catholics and Protestants accused each other of deliberately being in
league with Satan.[39] It was in this
context that the terms "Satanist" and "Satanism" emerged.[14]
The early modern period
also saw fear of Satanists reach its "historical apogee" in the form
of the witch
trials of the fifteenth to the eighteenth centuries.[40] This came as
the accusations which had been leveled at medieval heretics, among them that of
devil-worship, were applied to the pre-existing idea of the witch,
or practitioner of malevolent magic.[41] The idea of a
conspiracy of Satanic witches was developed by educated elites, although the
concept of malevolent witchcraft was a widespread part of popular belief
and folkloric ideas the night witch, the wild hunt, and the dance of the fairies were
incorporated into it.[42] The earliest trials
took place in Northern Italy and France, before spreading it out to other areas
of Europe and to Britain's North American colonies, being carried out by the
legal authorities in both Catholic and Protestant regions.[40] Between 30,000 and
50,000 individuals were executed as accused Satanic witches.[40] Most historians
agree that the majority of those persecuted in these witch trials were innocent
of any involvement in Devil worship.[43]However, in their summary
of the evidence for the trials, the historians Geoffrey Scarre and John Callow
thought it "without doubt" that some of those accused in the trials
had been guilty of employing magic in an attempt to harm their enemies, and
were thus genuinely guilty of witchcraft.[44]
In seventeenth-century
Sweden, a number of highway robbers and other outlaws living in the forests
informed judges that they venerated Satan because he provided more practical
assistance than God.[45] The historian of
religion Massimo Introvigneregarded
these practices as "folkloric Satanism".[16]
18th
to 20th century Christendom
During the eighteenth
century, gentleman's social clubs became increasingly prominent in Britain and
Ireland, among the most secretive of which were the Hellfire Clubs, which were first reported in
the 1720s.[46] The most famous of
these groups was the Order of the Knights of Saints Francis, which
was founded circa 1750 by the aristocrat Sir Francis Dashwood and
which assembled first at his estate at West Wycombe and later in Medmenham Abbey.[47] A number of
contemporary press sources portrayed these as gatherings of atheist rakes where Christianity was mocked and
toasts were made to the Devil.[48] Beyond these
sensationalist accounts, which may not be accurate portrayals of actual events,
little is known the activities of the Hellfire Clubs.[48]Introvigne suggested that
they may have engaged in a form of "playful Satanism" in which Satan
was invoked "to show a daring contempt for conventional morality" by
individuals who neither believed in his literal existence nor wanted to pay
homage to him.[49]
Stanislas
de Guaita drew the original goat pentagram, which first appeared in the
book La Clef de la Magie Noire in 1897. This symbol would
later become synonymous with Baphomet, and is commonly referred to as the
Sabbatic Goat.
The French Revolution of 1789 dealt a blow to
the hegemony of the Roman Catholic Church in
parts of Europe, and soon a number of Catholic authors began making claims that
it had been masterminded by a conspiratorial group of Satanists.[50] Among the first to
do so was French Catholic priest Jean-Baptiste
Fiard, who publicly claimed that a wide range of individuals, from
the Jacobins to tarot
card readers, were part of a Satanic conspiracy.[51] Fiard's ideas were
furthered by Alexis-Vincent-Charles Berbiguier, who devoted
a lengthy book to this conspiracy theory; he claimed that Satanists
had supernatural powers allowing them to curse people and to shapeshift into
both cats and fleas.[52] Although most of
his contemporaries regarded Berbiguier as mad,[53] his ideas gained
credence among many occultists, including Stanislas de Guaita,
a Cabalist who
used them for the basis of his book, The Temple of Satan.[54]
In the early 20th
century, the British novelist Dennis Wheatley produced a range of
influential novels in which his protagonists battled Satanic groups.[55] At the same time,
non-fiction authors like Montague Summers and Rollo
Ahmed published books claiming that Satanic groups practicing
black magic were still active across the world, although they provided no
evidence that this was the case.[56] During the 1950s,
various British tabloid newspapers repeated such claims, largely basing their
accounts on the allegations of one woman, Sarah Jackson, who claimed to have
been a member of such a group.[57] In 1973, the
British Christian Doreen
Irvinepublished From Witchcraft to Christ, in which she
claimed to have been a member of a Satanic group that gave her supernatural
powers, such as the ability to levitate, before she escaped and embraced
Christianity.[58] In the United
States during the 1960s and 1970s, various Christian preachers—the most famous
being Mike Warnke in
his 1972 book The Satan-Seller—claimed that they had been members of
Satanic groups who carried out sex rituals and animal sacrifices before
discovering Christianity.[59] According to Gareth
Medway in his historical examination of Satanism, these stories were "a
series of inventions by insecure people and hack writers, each one based on a
previous story, exaggerated a little more each time".[60]
Other publications made
allegations of Satanism against historical figures. The 1970s saw the
publication of the Romanian Protestant preacher Richard Wurmbrand's book in which he
argued—without corroborating evidence—that the socio-political theorist Karl Marx had been a Satanist.[61]
Satanic
ritual abuse hysteria
Main article: Satanic ritual abuse
At the end of the
twentieth century, a moral panic developed
around claims regarding a Devil-worshipping cult that made use of sexual abuse,
murder, and cannibalism in its rituals, with children being among its victims.[62] Initially, the
alleged perpetrators of such crimes were labelled "witches", although
the term "Satanist" was soon adopted as a favoured alternative,[62] and the phenomenon
itself came to be called "the Satanism Scare".[63] Promoters of the
claims alleged that there was a conspiracy of organised Satanists who occupied
prominent positions throughout society, from the police to politicians, and
that they had been powerful enough to cover up their crimes.[64]
Preceded
by some significant but isolated episodes in the 1970s, a great Satanism scare
exploded in the 1980s in the United States and Canada and was subsequently
exported towards England, Australia, and other countries. It was unprecedented
in history. It surpassed even the results of Taxil's propaganda, and has been compared with
the most virulent periods of witch hunting. The scare started in 1980 and
declined slowly between 1990... and 1994, when official British and American
reports denied the real existence of ritual satanic crimes. Particularly
outside the U.S. and U.K., however, its consequences are still felt today.
Sociologist of religion
Massimo Introvigne, 2016[65]
One of the primary
sources for the scare was Michelle Remembers,
a 1980 book by the Canadian psychiatrist Lawrence Pazder in which he detailed what
he claimed were the repressed memories of
his patient (and wife) Michelle Smith. Smith had claimed that as a child she
had been abused by her family in Satanic rituals in which babies were
sacrificed and Satan himself appeared.[66]In 1983, allegations were
made that the McMartin family—owners of a preschool in California—were guilty of sexually abusing the
children in their care during Satanic rituals. The allegations resulted in
a lengthy and
expensive trial, in which all of the accused would eventually be
cleared.[67] The publicity
generated by the case resulted in similar allegations being made in various
other parts of the United States.[68]
A prominent aspect of the
Satanic Scare was the claim by those in the developing
"anti-Satanism" movement that any child's claim Satanic ritual
abuse must be true, because children would not lie.[69] Although some
involved in the anti-Satanism movement were from Jewish and secular
backgrounds,[70] a central part was
played by fundamentalist and evangelical forms of Christianity, in
particular Pentecostalism,
with Christian groups holding conferences and producing books and videotapes to
promote belief in the conspiracy.[63] Various figures in
law enforcement also came to be promoters of the conspiracy theory, with such
"cult cops" holding various conferences to promote it.[71] The scare was later
imported to the United Kingdom through visiting evangelicals and became popular
among some of the country's social workers,[72]resulting in a range of
accusations and trials across Britain.[73]
The Satanic ritual abuse
hysteria died down between 1990 and 1994.[65] In the late 1980s,
the Satanic Scare had lost its impetus following increasing scepticism about
such allegations,[74] and a number of
those who had been convicted of perpetrating Satanic ritual abuse saw their
convictions overturned.[75] In 1990, an agent
of the U.S. Federal
Bureau of Investigation, Ken
Lanning, revealed that he had investigated 300 allegations of
Satanic ritual abuse and found no evidence for Satanism or ritualistic activity
in any of them.[75] In the UK,
the Department
of Health commissioned the anthropologist Jean La Fontaine to
examine the allegations of SRA.[76] She noted that
while approximately half did reveal evidence of genuine sexual abuse of
children, none revealed any evidence that Satanist groups had been involved or
that any murders had taken place.[77] She noted three
examples in which lone individuals engaged in child molestation had created a
ritual performance to facilitate their sexual acts, with the intent of
frightening their victims and justifying their actions, but that none of these
child molestors were involved in wider Satanist groups.[78] By the 21st
century, hysteria Satanism has waned in most Western countries, although
allegations of Satanic ritual abuse continued to surface in parts of
continental Europe and Latin America.[79]
Artistic Satanism
Literary
Satanism
Satan
in Paradise Lost,
as illustrated by Gustave Doré
From the late seventeenth
through to the nineteenth century, the character of Satan was increasingly
rendered unimportant in Western philosophy and ignored in Christian theology,
while in folklore he came to be seen as a foolish rather than a menacing figure.[80] The development of
new values in the Age of Enlightenment—in
particular those of reason and individualism—contributed to a shift in how
many Europeans viewed Satan.[80] In this context, a
number of individuals took Satan out of the traditional Christian narrative and
reread and reinterpreted him in light of their own time and their own
interests, in turn generating new and different portraits of Satan.[81]
The shifting view of
Satan owes many of its origins to John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost (1667), in which Satan
features as the protagonist.[82] Milton was a Puritan and had never intended for his depiction
of Satan to be a sympathetic one.[83] However, in
portraying Satan as a victim of his own pride who rebelled against God he
humanized him and also allowed him to be interpreted as a rebel against
tyranny.[84] This was how
Milton's Satan was understood by later readers like the publisher Joseph Johnson,[85] and the anarchist philosopher William Godwin, who reflected it in his 1793
book Enquiry
Concerning Political Justice.[84] Paradise Lostgained
a wide readership in the eighteenth century, both in Britain and in continental
Europe, where it had been translated into French by Voltaire.[86] Milton thus became
"a central character in rewriting Satanism" and would be viewed by
many later religious Satanists as a "de facto Satanist".[81]
The nineteenth century
saw the emergence of what has been termed "literary Satanism" or
"romantic Satanism".[87] According to Van
Luijk, this cannot be seen as a "coherent movement with a single voice,
but rather as a post factum identified group of sometimes
widely divergent authors among whom a similar theme is found".[88] For the literary
Satanists, Satan was depicted as a benevolent and sometimes heroic figure,[89] with these more
sympathetic portrayals proliferating in the art and poetry of many romanticist and decadent figures.[81] For these
individuals, Satanism was not a religious belief or ritual activity, but rather
a "strategic use of a symbol and a character as part of artistic and
political expression".[90]
Among the romanticist
poets to adopt this view of Satan was the English poet Percy Bysshe Shelley,
who had been influenced by Milton.[91] In his poem Laon and Cythna, Shelley praised the
"Serpent", a reference to Satan, as a force for good in the universe.[92]Another was Shelley's
fellow British poet Lord Byron, who
included Satanic themes in his 1821 play Cain, which was a dramatization of the
Biblical story of Cain and Abel.[87] These more positive
portrayals also developed in France; one example was the 1823 work Eloa by Alfred de Vigny.[93] Satan was also
adopted by the French poet Victor Hugo, who made the character's fall
from Heaven a central aspect of his La Fin de Satan, in which he outlined his
own cosmogony.[94] Although the likes
of Shelley and Byron promoted a positive image of Satan in their work, there is
no evidence that any of them performed religious rites to venerate him, and
thus it is problematic to regard them as religious Satanists.[88]
Radical left-wing
political ideas had been spread by the American Revolution of
1765–83 and the French Revolution of
1789–99, and the figure of Satan, who was interpreted as having rebelled
against the tyranny imposed by God, was an appealing one for many of the
radical leftists of the period.[95] For them, Satan was
"a symbol for the struggle against tyranny, injustice, and oppression... a
mythical figure of rebellion for an age of revolutions, a larger-than-life
individual for an age of individualism, a free thinker in an age struggling for
free thought".[90] The French
anarchist Pierre-Joseph
Proudhon, who was a staunch critic of Christianity, embraced Satan
as a symbol of liberty in several of his writings.[96] Another prominent
19th century anarchist, the Russian Mikhail Bakunin, similarly described the
figure of Satan as "the eternal rebel, the first freethinker and the
emancipator of worlds" in his book God and the State.[97] These ideas likely
inspired the American feminist activist Moses Harman to name his anarchist
periodical Lucifer the
Lightbearer.[98] The idea of this
"Leftist Satan" declined during the twentieth century,[98] although it was
used on occasion by authorities within the Soviet Union, who portrayed Satan as a symbol
of freedom and equality.[99]
Metal
and rock music
During the 1960s and
1970s, several rock bands—namely the American Coven and the British Black Widow—employed
the imagery of Satanism and witchcraft in their work.[100] References to Satan
also appeared in the work of those rock bands which were pioneering the heavy metal genre in Britain during the
1970s.[101] Black Sabbath for instance made mention
of Satan in their lyrics, although several of the band's members were
practicing Christians and other lyrics affirmed the power of the Christian God
over Satan.[102] In the 1980s,
greater use of Satanic imagery was made by heavy metal bands like Slayer, Kreator, Sodom, and Destruction.[103] Bands active in the
subgenre of death metal—among
them Deicide, Morbid Angel, and Entombed—also adopted Satanic imagery,
combining it with other morbid and dark imagery, such as that of zombies and serial killers.[104]
Heavy metal singer King
Diamond is a member of the Church of Satan
Satanism would come to be
more closely associated with the subgenre of black metal,[101]in which it was
foregrounded over the other themes that had been used in death metal.[105]A number of black metal
performers incorporated self-injury into their act, framing this as a
manifestation of Satanic devotion.[105] The first black
metal band, Venom, proclaimed
themselves to be Satanists, although this was more an act of provocation than
an expression of genuine devotion to the Devil.[106] Satanic themes were
also used by the black metal bands Bathory and Hellhammer.[107] However, the first
black metal act to more seriously adopt Satanism was Mercyful Fate, whose vocalist, King Diamond, joined the Church of Satan.[108] More often than not
musicians associating themselves with black metal say they do not believe in
legitimate Satanic ideology and often profess to being atheists, agnostics,
or religious skeptics.[109]
In contrast to King
Diamond, various black metal Satanists sought to distance themselves from
LaVeyan Satanism, for instance by referring to their beliefs as "devil worship".[110] These individuals
regarded Satan as a literal entity,[111] and in contrast to
LaVey's views, they associated Satanism with criminality, suicide, and terror.[110] For them,
Christianity was regarded as a plague which required eradication.[112] Many of these
individuals—such as Varg Vikernes and Euronymous—were Norwegian,[113] and influenced by
the strong anti-Christian views of this milieu, between 1992 and 1996 around
fifty Norwegian churches were destroyed in arson attacks.[114] Within the black
metal scene, a number of musicians later replaced Satanic themes with those
deriving from Heathenry,
a form of modern Paganism.[115]
Religious Satanism
See also: Contemporary
Religious Satanism
Rather than being one
single form of religious Satanism, there are instead multiple different
religious Satanisms, each with different ideas what being a Satanist
entails.[116] The historian of
religion Ruben van Luijk used a "working definition" in which
Satanism was regarded as "the intentional, religiously motivated
veneration of Satan".[15]
Dyrendal, Lewis, and
Petersen believed that it was not a single movement, but rather a milieu.[117] They and others
have nevertheless referred to it as a new religious
movement.[118] They believed that
there was a family resemblance that
united all of the varying groups in this milieu,[5] and that most of
them were self religions.[117] They argued that
there were a set of features that were common to the groups in this Satanic
milieu: these were the positive use of the term "Satanist" as a
designation, an emphasis on individualism, a genealogy that connects them to
other Satanic groups, a transgressive and antinomian stance, a self-perception
as an elite, and an embrace of values such as pride, self-reliance, and productive
non-conformity.[119]
Dyrendal, Lewis, and
Petersen argued that the groups within the Satanic milieu could be divided into
three groups: reactive Satanists, rationalist Satanists, and esoteric
Satanists.[120] They saw reactive
Satanism as encompassing "popular Satanism, inverted Christianity, and
symbolic rebellion" and noted that it situates itself in opposition to
society while at the same time conforming to society's perspective of evil.[120] Rationalist
Satanism is used to describe the trend in the Satanic milieu which is atheistic, sceptical, materialistic, and epicurean.[121] Esoteric Satanism
instead applied to those forms which are theistic and draw upon ideas from other
forms of Western esotericism, Modern Paganism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.[121]
Forerunners
and early forms
Eliphas Levi's Sabbatic Goat (known as The
Goat of Mendes or Baphomet) has become one
of the most common symbols of Satanism.
The first person to
promote a Satanic philosophy was the Pole Stanislaw
Przybyszewski, who promoted a Social Darwinian ideology.[122]
The use of the term
"Lucifer" was also taken up by the French ceremonial magicianEliphas Levi, who has been described as a
"Romantic Satanist".[123] During his younger
days, Levi used "Lucifer" in much the same manner as the literary
romantics.[124] As he moved toward
a more politically conservative outlook in later life, he retained the use of
the term, but instead applied it as to what he believed was a morally neutral
facet of the Absolute.[125] In his book Dogma and Ritual of High Magic, published
in two volumes between 1854 and 1856, Levi offered the symbol of Baphomet.[126] He claimed that
this was a figure who had been worshipped by the Knights Templar.[123] According to
Introvigne, this image gave "the Satanists their most popular symbol
ever".[126]
Levi was not the only
occultist who wanted to use the term "Lucifer" without adopting the
term "Satan" in a similar way.[124] The early Theosophical Society held
to the view that "Lucifer" was a force that aided humanity's
awakening to its own spiritual nature.[127] In keeping with
this view, the Society began production of a journal titled Lucifer.[128]
"Satan" was
also used within the esoteric system propounded by the Danish occultist Carl William Hansen,
who used the pen name "Ben Kadosh".[128] Hansen was involved
in a variety of esoteric groups, including Martinism, Freemasonry, and the Ordo Templi Orientis,
drawing on ideas from various groups to establish his own philosophy.[128] In one pamphlet, he
provided a "Luciferian" interpretation of Freemasonry.[129] Kadosh's work left
little influence outside of Denmark.[130]
Aleister Crowley was not
a Satanist, but used rhetoric and imagery considered satanic.
Both during his life and
after it, the British occultist Aleister Crowley has been widely
described as a Satanist, usually by detractors. Crowley stated he did not
consider himself a Satanist, nor did he worship Satan, as he did not accept the
Christian world view in which Satan was believed to exist.[131]He nevertheless used
imagery considered satanic, for instance by describing himself as "the
Beast 666" and referring to the Whore of Babylon in his work, while in
later life he sent "Antichristmas cards"
to his friends.[132] Dyrendel, Lewis,
and Petersen noted that despite the fact that Crowley was not a Satanist, he
"in many ways embodies the pre-Satanist esoteric discourse on Satan and
Satanism through his lifestyle and his philosophy", with his "image
and thought" becoming an "important influence" on the later
development of religious Satanism.[129]
In 1928 the Fraternitas Saturni (FS)
was established in Germany; its founder, Eugen Grosche, published Satanische
Magie ("Satanic Magic") that same year.[133] The group connected
Satan to Saturn, claiming that the planet related to the
Sun in the same manner that Lucifer relates to the human world.[133]
In 1932 an esoteric group
known as the Brotherhood of the Golden Arrow was
established in Paris, France by Maria de Naglowska,
a Russian occultist who had fled to France following the Russian Revolution.[134] She promoted a
theology centred on what she called the Third Term of the Trinity consisting of
Father, Son, and Sex, the latter of which she deemed to be most important.[135] Her early
disciples, who underwent what she called "Satanic Initiations",
included models and art students recruited from bohemian circles.[135] The Golden Arrow
disbanded after Naglowska abandoned it in 1936.[136] According to
Introvigne, hers was "a quite complicated Satanism, built on a complex
philosophical vision of the world, of which little would survive its
initiator".[137]
In 1969 a Satanic group
based in Toledo, Ohio, part
of the United States, came to public attention. Called the Our Lady of Endor
Coven, it was led by a man named Herbert Sloane, who described his
Satanic tradition as the Ophite Cultus Sathanas and alleged that it had been
established in the 1940s.[138] The group offered a
Gnostic interpretation of the world in which the creator God was regarded as
evil and the Biblical Serpent presented
as a force for good who had delivered salvation to humanity in the Garden of Eden.[139] Sloane's claims
that his group had a 1940s origin remain unproven; it may be that he falsely
claimed older origins for his group to make it appear older than Anton LaVey's
Church of Satan, which had been established in 1966.[140]
None of these groups had
any real impact on the emergence of the later Satanic milieu in the 1960s.[141]
Rationalistic
Satanism
LaVeyan
Satanism and the Church of Satan
Main articles: LaVeyan Satanism and Church of Satan
The
Sigil of Baphomet, the official insignia of the Church of Satan and LaVeyan
Satanism.
Anton LaVey, who has been referred to as
"The Father of Satanism",[142] synthesized his
religion through the establishment of the Church of Satan in 1966 and the
publication of The Satanic Bible in
1969. LaVey's teachings promoted "indulgence", "vital
existence", "undefiled wisdom", "kindness to those who
deserve it", "responsibility to the responsible" and an "eye for an eye" code of ethics, while
shunning "abstinence" based on guilt, "spirituality",
"unconditional love", "pacifism", "equality",
"herd mentality"
and "scapegoating".
In LaVey's view, the Satanist is a carnal, physical and pragmatic being—and
enjoyment of physical existence and an undiluted view of this-worldly truth are
promoted as the core values of Satanism, propagating a naturalisticworldview
that sees mankind as animals existing in an amoral universe.
LaVey believed that the
ideal Satanist should be individualistic and non-conformist, rejecting what he
called the "colorless existence" that mainstream society sought to
impose on those living within it.[143] He praised the
human ego for
encouraging an individual's pride, self-respect, and self-realization and
accordingly believed in satisfying the ego's desires.[144] He expressed the
view that self-indulgence was a desirable trait,[145] and that hate and
aggression were not wrong or undesirable emotions but that they were necessary
and advantageous for survival.[146] Accordingly, he
praised the seven deadly sins as
virtues which were beneficial for the individual.[147]The anthropologist Jean
La Fontaine highlighted an article that appeared in The Black Flame,
in which one writer described "a true Satanic society" as one in
which the population consists of "free-spirited, well-armed,
fully-conscious, self-disciplined individuals, who will neither need nor
tolerate any external entity 'protecting' them or telling them what they can
and cannot do."[148]
The sociologist James R. Lewis noted
that "LaVey was directly responsible for the genesis of Satanism as a
serious religious (as opposed to a purely literary) movement".[149] Scholars agree that
there is no reliably documented case of Satanic continuity prior to the
founding of the Church of Satan.[150] It was the first
organized church in modern times to be devoted to the figure of Satan,[151]and according to Faxneld
and Petersen, the Church represented "the first public, highly visible,
and long-lasting organization which propounded a coherent satanic
discourse".[152] LaVey's book, The
Satanic Bible, has been described as the most important document to
influence contemporary Satanism.[153] The book contains
the core principles of Satanism, and is considered the foundation of its
philosophy and dogma.[154] Petersen noted that
it is "in many ways the central text of the Satanic
milieu",[155] with Lap similarly
testifying to its dominant position within the wider Satanic movement.[156] David G. Bromley calls it "iconoclastic" and "the best-known
and most influential statement of Satanic theology."[157] Eugene V. Gallagher says
that Satanists use LaVey's writings "as lenses through which they view
themselves, their group, and the cosmos." He also states: "With a
clear-eyed appreciation of true human nature, a love of ritual and pageantry,
and a flair for mockery, LaVey's Satanic Bible promulgated a
gospel of self-indulgence that, he argued, anyone who dispassionately
considered the facts would embrace."[158]
A number of religious
studies scholars have described LaVey's Satanism as a form of
"self-religion" or "self-spirituality",[159] with religious
studies scholar Amina Olander Lap arguing that it should be seen as being both
part of the "prosperity wing" of the self-spirituality New Age movement and a form of the Human Potential
Movement.[160] The anthropologist
Jean La Fontaine described it as having "both elitist and anarchist
elements", also citing one occult bookshop owner who referred to the Church's
approach as "anarchistic hedonism".[161] In The
Invention of Satanism, Dyrendal and Petersen theorized that LaVey viewed
his religion as "an antinomian self-religion for productive misfits, with
a cynically carnivalesque take
on life, and no supernaturalism".[162] The sociologist of
religion James R. Lewis even
described LaVeyan Satanism as "a blend of Epicureanism and Ayn Rand's philosophy, flavored with a pinch
of ritual magic."[163] The historian of
religion Mattias Gardell described
LaVey's as "a rational ideology of egoistic hedonism and self-preservation",[164] while Nevill Drury characterised LaVeyan
Satanism as "a religion of self-indulgence".[165] It has also been
described as an "institutionalism of Machiavellian self-interest".[166]
Prominent Church
leader Blanche Barton described
Satanism as "an alignment, a lifestyle".[167] LaVey and the
Church espoused the view that "Satanists are born, not made";[168] that they are
outsiders by their nature, living as they see fit,[169] who are
self-realized in a religion which appeals to the would-be Satanist's nature,
leading them to realize they are Satanists through finding a belief system that
is in line with their own perspective and lifestyle.[170] Adherents to the
philosophy have described Satanism as a non-spiritual religion
of the flesh, or
"...the world's first carnal religion".[171] LaVey used
Christianity as a negative mirror for his new faith,[172] with LaVeyan
Satanism rejecting the basic principles and theology of Christian belief.[161] It views
Christianity – alongside other major religions, and philosophies such as humanism and liberal democracy – as a largely negative
force on humanity; LaVeyan Satanists perceive Christianity as a lie which
promotes idealism, self-denigration, herd behavior, and irrationality.[173]LaVeyans view their
religion as a force for redressing this balance by encouraging materialism,
egoism, stratification, carnality, atheism, and social Darwinism.[173] LaVey's Satanism
was particularly critical of what it understands as Christianity's denial of
humanity's animal nature, and it instead calls for the celebration of, and
indulgence in, these desires.[161] In doing so, it
places an emphasis on the carnal rather than the spiritual.[174]
Practitioners do not
believe that Satan literally exists and do not worship
him. Instead, Satan is viewed as a positive archetypeembracing the Hebrew root of the word
"Satan" as "adversary", who represents pride, carnality, and enlightenment,
and of a cosmos which Satanists perceive to be
motivated by a "dark evolutionary
force of entropy that permeates all of nature and
provides the drive for survival and propagation inherent in all living
things".[175] The Devil is embraced as a symbol of
defiance against the Abrahamic faiths which LaVey criticized
for what he saw as the suppression of humanity's natural instincts. Moreover,
Satan also serves as a metaphorical external projection of the
individual's godhood. LaVey espoused
the view that "god" is a creation of man, rather than man being a
creation of "god". In his book, The Satanic Bible, the
Satanist's view of god is described as the Satanist's true "self"—a
projection of his or her own personality—not an external deity.[176] Satan is used as a
representation of personal liberty and individualism.[177]
LaVey explained that the
gods worshiped by other religions are also projections of man's true self. He
argues that man's unwillingness to accept his own ego has caused him to
externalize these gods so as to avoid the feeling of narcissism that would accompany self-worship.[178] The current High
Priest of the Church of Satan, Peter H. Gilmore, further expounds that
"...Satan is a symbol of Man living as his prideful, carnal nature
dictates [...] Satan is not a conscious entity to be worshiped, rather a
reservoir of power inside each human to be tapped at will.[179] The Church of Satan
has chosen Satan as its primary symbol because in Hebrew it means adversary,
opposer, one to accuse or question. We see ourselves as being these Satans; the
adversaries, opposers and accusers of all spiritual belief systems that would
try to hamper enjoyment of our life as a human being."[180] The term
"Theistic Satanism" has been described as "oxymoronic" by the church and its High
Priest.[181] The Church of Satan
rejects the legitimacy of any other organizations who claim to be Satanists,
dubbing them reverse-Christians, pseudo-Satanists or Devil worshipers,
atheistic or otherwise,[182] and maintains a
purist approach to Satanism as expounded by LaVey.[151]
First
Satanic Church
Main article: First Satanic Church
After LaVey's death in
1997, the Church of Satan was taken over by a new administration and its
headquarters were moved to New York. LaVey's daughter, the High Priestess
Karla LaVey, felt this to be a disservice to her father's legacy. The First
Satanic Church was re-founded on October 31, 1999 by Karla LaVey to carry on the legacy of her
father. She continues to run it out of San Francisco,
California.
The
Satanic Temple
Main article: The Satanic Temple
The Satanic Temple is
an American religious
and political activist organization
based in Salem, Massachusetts.
The organization actively participates in public affairs that have manifested
in several public political actions[183][184] and efforts
at lobbying,[185] with a focus on the
separation of church and state and using satire against Christian groups that it believes
interfere with personal freedom.[185] According to
Dyrendal, Lewis, and Petersen, the group were "rationalist, political
pranksters".[186] Their pranks are
designed to highlight religious hypocrisy and advance the cause of secularism.[187] In one of their
actions, they performed a "Pink Mass" over the grave of the mother of
the evangelical Christian and prominent anti-LGBT preacher Fred Phelps; the Temple claimed that the mass
converted the spirit of Phelps' mother into a lesbian.[186]
The Satanic Temple does
not believe in a supernatural Satan, as they believe that this encourages
superstition that would keep them from being "malleable to the best
current scientific understandings of the material world". The Temple uses
the literary Satanas
metaphor to construct a cultural narrative which promotes
pragmatic skepticism, rational reciprocity, personal autonomy, and curiosity.[188] Satan is thus used
as a symbol representing "the eternal rebel" against arbitrary
authority and social norms.[189][190]
Theistic
Satanism
Main article: Theistic Satanism
Theistic Satanism (also
known as traditional Satanism, Spiritual Satanism or Devil worship)
is a form of Satanism with the primary belief that Satan is an actual deity or
force to revere or worship.[191] Other
characteristics of theistic Satanism may include a belief in magic, which
is manipulated through ritual, although that is
not a defining criterion, and theistic Satanists may focus solely on devotion.
Luciferianism
A
version of the symbol of Lucifer, used by some modern Satanists
Main article: Luciferianism
Luciferianism can be
understood best as a belief system or intellectual creed that venerates the
essential and inherent characteristics that are affixed and commonly given
to Lucifer. Luciferianism is often identified as
an auxiliary creed or movement of Satanism, due to the common identification of
Lucifer with Satan. Some Luciferians accept this identification and/or consider
Lucifer as the "light bearer" and illuminated aspect of Satan, giving
them the name of Satanists and the right to bear the title. Others reject it,
giving the argument that Lucifer is a more positive and easy-going ideal than
Satan. They are inspired by the ancient myths of Egypt, Romeand Greece, Gnosticism and traditional Western
occultism.
Order
of Nine Angles
Main article: Order of Nine Angles
One
of the principal symbols of the ONA
According to the group's
own claims, the Order of Nine Angles was established in Shropshire, Western England during the late
1960s, when a Grand Mistress united a number of ancient pagan groups active in
the area.[192] This account states
that when the Order's Grand Mistress migrated to Australia, a man known as
"Anton Long" took over as the new Grand Master.[192]From 1976 onward he
authored an array of texts for the tradition, codifying and extending its
teachings, mythos, and structure.[193] Various academics
have argued that Long is the pseudonym of British neo-Nazi activist David Myatt,[194] an allegation that
Myatt has denied.[195] The ONA arose to
public attention in the early 1980s,[196] spreading its
message through magazine articles over the following two decades.[197] In 2000, it
established a presence on the internet,[197] later
adopting social media to
promote its message.[198]
The ONA is a secretive
organization,[199] and lacks any
central administration, instead operating as a network of allied Satanic
practitioners, which it terms the "kollective".[200] It consists largely
of autonomous cells known as
"nexions".[200] The majority of
these are located in Britain, Ireland, and Germany, although others are located
elsewhere in Europe, and in Russia, Egypt, South Africa, Brazil, Australia, and
the United States.[200]
The ONA describe their
occultism as "Traditional Satanism".[201] The ONA's writings
encourage human sacrifice,[202] referring to their
victims as opfers.[203] According to the
Order's teachings, such opfers must demonstrate character faults that mark them
out as being worthy of death,[204] and accordingly the
ONA insists that children must never be victims.[205] No ONA cell have
admitted to carrying out a sacrifice in a ritualised manner, but rather Order
members have joined the police and military in order to carry out such
killings.[206] Faxneld described
the Order as "a dangerous and extreme form of Satanism",[207] while religious
studies scholar Graham Harvey claimed that the ONA fit the stereotype of the
Satanist "better than other groups" by embracing "deeply
shocking" and illegal acts.[208]
Temple
of Set
Main article: Temple of Set
The Temple of Set is
an initiatory occult society claiming to be the world's
leading left-hand
path religious organization. It was established in 1975 by
Michael A. Aquino and certain members of the priesthood of the Church of Satan,[209] who left because of
administrative and philosophical disagreements. ToS deliberately
self-differentiates from CoS in several ways, most significantly in theology
and sociology.[210] The philosophy of
the Temple of Set may be summed up as "enlightened
individualism"—enhancement and improvement of oneself by personal
education, experiment and initiation. This process is necessarily different and
distinctive for each individual. The members do not agree on whether Set is
"real" or not, and they're not expected to.[210]
The Temple presents the
view that the name Satan was originally a corruption of the
name Set.[211] The Temple teaches
that Set is a real entity,[212] the only real god
in existence, with all others created by the human imagination.[213] Set is described as
having given humanity—through the means of non-natural evolution—the "Black Flame" or the
"Gift of Set", a questioning intellect which sets the species apart
from other animals.[214] While Setians are
expected to revere Set, they do not worship him.[215] Central to Setian
philosophy is the human individual,[172] with self-deification presented as the
ultimate goal.[216]
In 2005 Petersen noted
that academic estimates for the Temple's membership varied from between 300 and
500,[217] and Granholm
suggested that in 2007 the Temple contained circa 200 members.[218]
Reactive
Satanism
The
American serial killer Richard Ramirez was a reactive Satanist.
Dyrendal, Lewis, and
Petersen used the term "reactive Satanism" to describe one form of
modern religious Satanism. They described this as an adolescent and anti-social means
of rebelling in a Christian society, by which an individual transgresses
cultural boundaries.[120] They believed that
there were two tendencies within reactive Satanism: one, "Satanic
tourism", was characterised by the brief period of time in which an
individual was involved, while the other, the "Satanic quest", was
typified by a longer and deeper involvement.[121]
The researcher Gareth
Medway noted that in 1995 he encountered a British woman who stated that she
had been a practicing Satanist during her teenage years. She had grown up in a
small mining village, and had come to believe that she had psychic powers. After hearing about
Satanism in some library books, she declared herself a Satanist and formulated
a belief that Satan was the true god. After her teenage years she abandoned
Satanism and became a chaos magickian.[219]
Some reactive Satanists
are teenagers or mentally disturbed individuals who have engaged in criminal
activities.[220] During the 1980s
and 1990s, several groups of teenagers were apprehended after sacrificing
animals and vandalising both churches and graveyards with Satanic imagery.[221] Introvigne
expressed the view that these incidents were "more a product of juvenile
deviance and marginalization than Satanism".[221] In a few cases the
crimes of these reactive Satanists have included murder. In 1970, two separate
groups of teenagers—one led by Stanley Baker in Big Surand the other by Steven Hurd in Los Angeles—killed a total of three people and
consumed parts of their corpses in what they later claimed were sacrifices
devoted to Satan.[222] In 1984, a U.S.
group called the Knights of the Black Circle killed one of its own members,
Gary Lauwers, over a disagreement regarding the group's illegal drug dealing;
group members later related that Lauwers' death was a sacrifice to Satan.[222] The American serial
killer Richard Ramirez for
instance claimed that he was a Satanist; during his 1980s killing spree he left
an inverted pentagram at the scene of each murder and at his trial called out
"Hail Satan!"[223]
Demographics
Dyrendal, Lewis, and
Petersen observed that from surveys of Satanists conducted in the early 21st
century, it was clear that the Satanic milieu was "heavily dominated by
young males".[224] They nevertheless
noted that census data from New Zealand suggested that there may be a growing
proportion of women becoming Satanists.[224] In comprising more
men than women, Satanism differs from most other religious communities,
including most new religious communities.[225] Most Satanists came
to their religion through reading, either online or books, rather than through
being introduced to it through personal contacts.[226] Many practitioners
do not claim that they converted to Satanism, but rather state that they were
born that way, and only later in life confirmed that Satanism served as an
appropriate label for their pre-existing worldviews.[227] Others have stated
that they had experiences with supernatural phenomena that led them to
embracing Satanism.[228] A number reported
feelings of anger at the hypocrisy of many practicing Christians and expressed
the view that the monotheistic Gods
of Christianity and other religions are unethical, citing issues such as
the problem of evil.[229] For some
practitioners, Satanism gave a sense of hope, including for those who had been
physically and sexually abused.[230]
The surveys revealed that
atheistic Satanists appeared to be in the majority, although the numbers of
theistic Satanists appeared to grow over time.[231] Beliefs in the
afterlife varied, although the most popular afterlife views were reincarnation and the idea that
consciousness survives bodily death.[232] The surveys also
demonstrated that most recorded Satanists practiced magic,[233]although there were
differing opinions as to whether magical acts operated according to etheric
laws or whether the effect of magic was purely psychological.[234] A number described
performing cursing, in most cases as a form of vigilante
justice.[235] Most practitioners
conduct their religious observances in a solitary manner, and never or rarely
meet fellow Satanists for rituals.[236]Rather, the primary
interaction that takes place between Satanists is online, on websites or via
email.[237] From their survey
data, Dyrendal, Lewis, and Petersen noted that the average length of
involvement in the Satanic milieu was seven years.[238] A Satanist's
involvement in the movement tends to peak in the early twenties and drops off
sharply in their thirties.[239] A small proportion
retain their allegiance to the religion into their elder years.[240] When asked about
their political views, the largest proportion of Satanists identified as
apolitical or non-aligned, while only a small percentage identified as
conservative despite the conservative views of prominent Satanists like LaVey
and Marilyn Manson.[241] A small minority of
Satanists expressed support for the far right; conversely, over two-thirds
expressed negative or extremely negative views about Nazism and neo-Nazism.[228]
Legal
recognition
In 2004 it was claimed
that Satanism was allowed in the Royal Navy of
the British Armed Forces,
despite opposition from Christians.[242][243][244] In 2016, under
a Freedom
of Information request, the Navy Command
Headquarters stated that "we do not recognise satanism as
a formal religion, and will not grant facilities or make specific time
available for individual 'worship'."[245]
In 2005, the Supreme
Court of the United States debated in the case of Cutter v. Wilkinson over
protecting minority religious rightsof prison inmates after a
lawsuit challenging the issue was filed to them.[246][247] The court ruled
that facilities that accept federal funds cannot deny prisoners accommodations
that are necessary to engage in activities for the practice of their own
religious beliefs.[248][249]
See also
·
Contemporary
Religious Satanism
References
Footnotes
1. ^ Gilmore,
Peter. "Science and Satanism". Point
of Inquiry Interview. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b Jesper
Aagaard Petersen (2009). "Introduction: Embracing
Satan". Contemporary Religious Satanism: A Critical Anthology.
Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-5286-1.
3. ^ Alisauskiene, Milda (2009).
"The Peculiarities of Lithuanian Satanism". In Jesper Aagaard
Petersen. Contemporary Religious Satanism: A Critical Anthology. Ashgate
Publishing. ISBN 0-7546-5286-6.
4. ^ "Satanism stalks Poland". BBC News.
2000-06-05.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
p. 7.
6. ^ Van Luijk 2016, p. 16.
7. ^ Petersen 2012, p. 92.
8. ^ Gallagher 2006, p. 151.
9. ^ Medway 2001, p. 51; Van Luijk 2016, p. 19.
10. ^ Medway 2001, p. 51.
11. ^ Medway 2001, p. 52.
12. ^ Medway 2001, p. 53.
13. ^ Jump up to:a b c Medway 2001, p. 9.
14. ^ Jump up to:a b Medway 2001, p. 257; Van Luijk 2016, p. 2.
15. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Van Luijk 2016, p. 2.
16. ^ Jump up to:a b Introvigne 2016, p. 44.
17. ^ Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
pp. 13–14.
18. ^ Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
p. 14.
19. ^ Jump up to:a b Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
p. 16.
20. ^ Jump up to:a b Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
p. 15.
21. ^ Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
p. 19.
22. ^ Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
p. 20.
23. ^ Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
p. 19; Van Luijk 2016, p. 18.
24. ^ Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
p. 21.
25. ^ Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
pp. 21–22.
26. ^ Van Luijk 2016, p. 23.
27. ^ Jump up to:a b Van Luijk 2016, p. 24.
28. ^ Van Luijk 2016, pp. 24–26.
29. ^ Van Luijk 2016, pp. 25–26.
30. ^ Van Luijk 2016, p. 25.
31. ^ Van Luijk 2016, p. 28.
32. ^ Medway 2001, p. 126.
33. ^ Van Luijk 2016, pp. 28–29.
34. ^ Van Luijk 2016, pp. 29–31.
35. ^ Medway 2001, p. 57.
36. ^ Medway 2001, p. 58.
37. ^ Medway 2001, pp. 57–58.
38. ^ Medway 2001, pp. 60–63.
39. ^ Van Luijk 2016, p. 35.
40. ^ Jump up to:a b c Van Luijk 2016, p. 36.
41. ^ Medway 2001, p. 133; Van Luijk 2016, p. 37.
42. ^ Van Luijk 2016, p. 38.
43. ^ Medway 2001, p. 70.
44. ^ Scarre & Callow 2001, p. 2.
45. ^ Introvigne 2016, pp. 44–45.
46. ^ Introvigne 2016, pp. 58–59; Van Luijk 2016, p. 66.
47. ^ Van Luijk 2016, pp. 66–67.
48. ^ Jump up to:a b Van Luijk 2016, p. 66.
49. ^ Introvigne 2016, pp. 60–61.
50. ^ Introvigne 2016, p. 71.
51. ^ Introvigne 2016, pp. 71–73.
52. ^ Introvigne 2016, pp. 74–78.
53. ^ Introvigne 2016, pp. 84–85.
54. ^ Introvigne 2016, pp. 85–86.
55. ^ Medway 2001, pp. 266–267.
56. ^ Medway 2001, pp. 141–142.
57. ^ Medway 2001, pp. 143–149.
58. ^ Medway 2001, pp. 159–161.
59. ^ Medway 2001, pp. 164–170.
60. ^ Medway 2001, p. 161.
61. ^ Medway 2001, pp. 262–263; Introvigne 2016, p. 66.
62. ^ Jump up to:a b La Fontaine 2016, p. 13.
63. ^ Jump up to:a b La Fontaine 2016, p. 15.
64. ^ La Fontaine 2016, p. 13; Introvigne 2016, p. 381.
65. ^ Jump up to:a b Introvigne 2016, p. 372.
66. ^ Medway 2001, pp. 175–177; Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
pp. 115–116; Introvigne 2016, pp. 374–376.
67. ^ Medway 2001, pp. 178–183; Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
pp. 116–120; Introvigne 2016, pp. 405–406.
68. ^ Medway 2001, p. 183.
69. ^ La Fontaine 2016, p. 16.
70. ^ Medway 2001, p. 369; La Fontaine 2016, p. 15.
71. ^ Medway 2001, pp. 191–195.
72. ^ Medway 2001, pp. 220–221.
73. ^ Medway 2001, pp. 234–248.
74. ^ Medway 2001, pp. 210–211.
75. ^ Jump up to:a b Medway 2001, p. 213.
76. ^ Medway 2001, p. 249.
77. ^ La Fontaine 2016, pp. 13–14.
78. ^ Medway 2001, p. 118; La Fontaine 2016, p. 14.
79. ^ Introvigne 2016, p. 456.
80. ^ Jump up to:a b Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
p. 29.
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93. ^ Van Luijk 2016, pp. 74–75.
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97. ^ Van Luijk 2016, pp. 119–120.
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117. ^ Jump up to:a b Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
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118. ^ Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
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119. ^ Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
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120. ^ Jump up to:a b c Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
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121. ^ Jump up to:a b c Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
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122. ^ Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
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123. ^ Jump up to:a b Introvigne 2016, p. 107.
124. ^ Jump up to:a b Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
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125. ^ Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
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127. ^ Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
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128. ^ Jump up to:a b c Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
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129. ^ Jump up to:a b Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
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130. ^ Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
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135. ^ Jump up to:a b Medway 2001, p. 18.
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148. ^ La Fontaine 1999, p. 97.
149. ^ Lewis 2001, p. 5.
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153. ^ Lewis 2003, p. 116.
154. ^ Lewis 2003, p. 105.
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162. ^ The Invention of Satanism & Asbjorn Dyrendal, Jesper
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197. ^ Jump up to:a b Senholt 2013, p. 256.
198. ^ Monette 2013, p. 107.
199. ^ Kaplan 2000, p. 236.
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221. ^ Jump up to:a b Introvigne 2016, p. 445.
222. ^ Jump up to:a b Introvigne 2016, p. 446.
223. ^ Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
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224. ^ Jump up to:a b Dyrendal, Lewis & Petersen 2016,
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242. ^ Royal Navy to allow devil worship CNN
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