Vespasian
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Vespasian |
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Bust of Vespasian |
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Reign |
1 July 69 – 24 June 79 |
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Successor |
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Born |
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Died |
24 June 79 (aged 69) |
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Burial |
Rome |
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Wives |
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Domitilla the Elder (died
before 69) ·
Caenis (mistress and de facto wife c.
65–74) |
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Father |
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Vespasian (/vɛˈspeɪʒ(i)ən, -ziən/; Latin: Titus Flavius Vespasianus;[note 1] 17 November 9 – 24
June 79 AD)[1] was Roman emperor from 69–79, the fourth, and
last, in the Year of the Four
Emperors. He founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Empire for
27 years.
Vespasian was the first
emperor who hailed from an equestrian family
and only rose into the senatorial rank
as the first member of his family later in his lifetime. Vespasian's renown
came from his military success; he was legate of Legio II Augusta during
the Roman invasion of
Britain in 43[2] and
subjugated Judaea during
the Jewish rebellion of
66.[3]
While Vespasian besieged
Jerusalem during the Jewish rebellion, emperor Nerocommitted
suicide and plunged Rome into a year of civil war known as the Year of the Four
Emperors. After Galba and Otho perished
in quick succession, Vitellius became
emperor in April 69. The Roman legions of Roman Egypt and
Judaea reacted by declaring Vespasian, their commander, emperor on 1 July 69.[4] In his bid for
imperial power, Vespasian joined forces with Mucianus,
the governor of Syria, and Primus, a
general in Pannonia, leaving his
son Titus to command the besieging forces
at Jerusalem. Primus and Mucianus led the Flavian
forces against Vitellius, while Vespasian took control of Egypt. On 20 December
69, Vitellius was defeated, and the following day Vespasian was declared
emperor by the Senate.[5]
Little information
survives about the government during Vespasian's ten-year rule. He reformed the
financial system of Rome after the campaign against Judaea ended successfully,
and initiated several ambitious construction projects, including the building
of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known today as the Roman Colosseum. Through his general Agricola,
Vespasian increased imperial expansion in Britain. After his death in 79, he
was succeeded by his eldest son Titus,
thus becoming the first Roman emperor to be directly succeeded by his own
natural son and establishing the Flavian dynasty.
Contents
·
1Family
·
2Military and
political career
o 2.2Invasion of
Britannia (43)
o 2.3Later political
career (51–66)
o 2.4Great Jewish
Revolt (66–69)
·
3Year of the Four
Emperors (69)
o 4.1Aftermath of the
civil war
o 4.2Arrival in Rome
and gathering support
o 4.3Relationship
with barbarians
o 4.5Construction and
conspiracies
o 4.6Roman expansion
in Britain (78–79)
·
5Legacy
·
8Notes
Family[edit]
Vespasian was born in a
village north-east of Rome called Falacrinae.[6] His family was relatively undistinguished
and lacking in pedigree. His paternal grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro,
became the first to distinguish himself, rising to the rank of centurion and fighting at Pharsalus for Pompey in 48 BC. Subsequently, he became
a debt collector.[7]
Petro's son, Titus
Flavius Sabinus, worked as a customs official in the province of Asia and
became a moneylender on a
small scale among the Helvetii. He gained a
reputation as a scrupulous and honest "tax-farmer".
Sabinus married up in status, to Vespasia Polla, whose father had risen to the
rank of prefect of the camp and
whose brother became a Senator.[7]
Sabinus and Vespasia had
three children, the eldest of whom, a girl, died in infancy. The elder
boy, Titus
Flavius Sabinus, entered public life and pursued the cursus honorum. He served in the army as a
military tribune in Thrace in 36. The following year he was
elected quaestor and served in Creta et Cyrenaica.
He rose through the ranks of Roman public office, being elected aedile on his second attempt in 39
and praetor on his first attempt in 40,
taking the opportunity to ingratiate himself with the Emperor Caligula.[7]
The younger boy,
Vespasian, seemed far less likely to be successful, initially not wishing to
pursue high public office. He followed in his brother's footsteps when driven
to it by his mother's taunting.[7] During this period
he married Flavia Domitilla,
the daughter of Flavius Liberalis from Ferentium and formerly the mistress
of Statilius
Capella, a Roman equestrian from Sabratha in Africa.[8]
They had two sons, Titus
Flavius Vespasianus (born 39) and Titus Flavius Domitianus (born 51), and a
daughter, Domitilla (born
c. 45). His wife Domitilla and his daughter Domitilla both died before
Vespasian became Emperor in 69. After the death of his wife, Vespasian's
longstanding mistress, Antonia Caenis, became his wife in all but formal
status, a relationship that continued until she died in 75.[7]
Military and political career[edit]
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Vespasian
leading his forces against the Jewish revolt,
a miniaturein
a 1470 illuminated
manuscriptversion of the history of Josephus
Early
career[edit]
In preparation for
a praetorship, Vespasian needed two periods of
service in the minor magistracies,
one military and the other public. Vespasian served in the military in Thraciafor about three years. On his return to
Rome in about 30 AD, he obtained a post in the vigintivirate, the minor magistracies,
most probably in one of the posts in charge of street cleaning.[9] His early
performance was so unsuccessful that Emperor Caligula reportedly stuffed handfuls
of muck down his toga to
correct the uncleaned Roman streets, formally his responsibility.[7]
During the period of the
ascendancy of Sejanus, there is no
record of Vespasian's significant activity in political events. After
completion of a term in the vigintivirate, Vespasian was entitled to stand for
election as quaestor; a senatorial
office. But his lack of political or family influence meant that Vespasian
served as quaestor in one of the provincial posts in Crete, rather
than as assistant to important men in Rome.[9]
Next he needed to gain a
praetorship, carrying the Imperium, but non-patricians and
the less well-connected had to serve in at least one intermediary post as
an aedile or tribune. Vespasian failed at his first attempt
to gain an aedileship but was successful in his second attempt, becoming an
aedile in 38. Despite his lack of significant family connections or success in
office, he achieved praetorship in either 39 or 40, at the youngest age
permitted (30), during a period of political upheaval in the organisation of
elections. His longstanding relationship with freedwoman Antonia Caenis, confidential secretary
to Antonia Minor (the
Emperor's grandmother) and part of the circle of courtiers and servants around the
Emperor, may have contributed to his success.[9]
Invasion
of Britannia (43)[edit]
Upon the accession
of Claudius as emperor in 41, Vespasian was
appointed legate of Legio II Augusta, stationed
in Germania, thanks to the influence of the
Imperial freedman Narcissus.
In 43, Vespasian and the II Augusta participated in the Roman invasion of
Britain, and he distinguished himself under the overall command
of Aulus Plautius.
After participating in crucial early battles on the rivers Medway and Thames, he was sent to reduce the south west,
penetrating through the modern counties of Hampshire, Wiltshire, Dorset, Somerset, Devon and Cornwall with the probable objectives of
securing the south coast ports and harbours along with the tin mines of
Cornwall and the silver and lead mines of Somerset.
Vespasian marched
from Noviomagus Reginorum (Chichester) to subdue the hostile Durotriges and Dumnonii tribes,[10] captured
twenty oppida (towns, or more probably hill forts, including Hod Hill and Maiden Castle in Dorset). He also invaded Vectis (now the Isle of Wight), finally setting up a fortress
and legionary headquarters at Isca Dumnoniorum (Exeter). During this time he injured himself
and had not fully recovered until he went to Egypt. These successes earned him
triumphal regalia (ornamenta triumphalia)
on his return to Rome.
Later
political career (51–66)[edit]
Roman
Emperor Nerosends Vespasian with an army to put down
the Jewish revolt, 66 AD
His success as the legate
of a legion earned him a consulship in 51, after which he retired
from public life, having incurred the enmity of Claudius' wife, Agrippina.[7] He came out of
retirement in 63 when he was sent as governor to Africa Province. According to Tacitus (ii.97), his rule was
"infamous and odious" but according to Suetonius (Vesp. 4),
he was "upright and, highly honorable". On one occasion, Suetonius
writes, Vespasian was pelted with turnips.
Vespasian used his time
in North Africa wisely. Usually, governorships were seen by ex-consuls as
opportunities to extort huge amounts of money to regain the wealth they had
spent on their previous political campaigns. Corruption was so rife that it was
almost expected that a governor would come back from these appointments with
his pockets full. However, Vespasian used his time in North Africa making
friends instead of money, something that would be far more valuable in the
years to come. During his time in North Africa, he found himself in financial
difficulties and was forced to mortgage his estates to his brother. To revive
his fortunes he turned to the mule trade and gained
the nickname mulio (muleteer).[11]
Returning from Africa,
Vespasian toured Greece in Nero's retinue, but lost Imperial
favor after paying insufficient attention (some sources suggest he fell asleep)
during one of the Emperor's recitals on the lyre,
and found himself in the political wilderness.
Great
Jewish Revolt (66–69)[edit]
Main article: First Jewish–Roman
War
Vespasian sestertius, struck in 71 to celebrate the
victory in the first Jewish-Roman war. The legend on the reverse says: IVDEA CAPTA,
"Judaeaconquered".
In 66 AD, Vespasian was
appointed to suppress the Jewish revolt underway in Judea.
The fighting there had killed the previous governor and routed Cestius Gallus, the governor of Syria,
when he tried to restore order. Two legions, with eight cavalry squadrons and
ten auxiliary cohorts,
were therefore dispatched under the command of Vespasian while his elder son,
Titus, arrived from Alexandria with
another.
During this time he
became the patron of Flavius Josephus, a Jewish resistance
leader captured at the Siege of Yodfat, who would later write his
people's history in Greek. Ultimately, thousands of Jews were killed and the
Romans destroyed many towns in re-establishing control over Judea; they also
took Jerusalem in 70. Vespasian is remembered by Josephus, in his Antiquities of the
Jews, as a fair and humane official, in contrast with the
notorious Herod Agrippa II whom
Josephus goes to great lengths to demonize.
While under the emperor's
patronage, Josephus wrote that after the Roman Legio X Fretensis, accompanied by Vespasian,
destroyed Jericho on 21 June 68, Vespasian took a
group of Jews who could not swim (possibly Essenes from Qumran), fettered them, and threw them into
the Dead Sea to test the sea's
legendary buoyancy. Indeed, the captives bobbed up to
the surface after being thrown in the water from the boats.
Josephus (as well
as Tacitus), reporting on the conclusion of the
Jewish war, reported a prophecy that around the time when Jerusalem and
the Second Temple would
be taken, a man from their own nation, viz. the Messiah, would become governor of the
habitable earth. Josephus, dismissing these things, said that the only governor
of the habitable earth was Vespasian who conquered it.[12][13]
Year of the Four Emperors (69)[edit]
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Main article: Year of the Four
Emperors
Roman imperial
dynasties |
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Chronology |
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Galba 68–69 ·
Otho 69 69 ·
Vespasian 69–79 |
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Succession |
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After the death of Nero
in 68, Rome saw a succession of short-lived emperors and a year of civil wars. Galba was
murdered by supporters of Otho, who was defeated
by Vitellius. Otho's supporters, looking for
another candidate to support, settled on Vespasian.
According to Suetonius, a
prophecy ubiquitous in the Eastern provinces claimed that from Judaea would
come the future rulers of the world. Vespasian eventually believed that this
prophecy applied to him, and found a number of omens, oracles, and portents that
reinforced this belief.[14]
Map
of the Roman Empire during the Year of the Four
Emperors (69). Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian
and Gaius Licinius
Mucianus.[dubious – discuss]
He also found
encouragement in Mucianus, the governor of
Syria; and, although Vespasian was a strict disciplinarian and reformer of
abuses, Vespasian's soldiers were thoroughly devoted to him. All eyes in the
East were now upon him. Mucianus and the Syrian legions were eager to support
him. While he was at Caesarea, he was proclaimed emperor (1 July
69), first by the army in Egypt under Tiberius Julius
Alexander, and then by his troops in Judaea (11 July according to
Suetonius, 3 July according to Tacitus).[5]
Nevertheless, Vitellius, the occupant of the throne, had
Rome's best troops on his side — the veteran legions of Gaul and the Rhineland. But the feeling in Vespasian's
favour quickly gathered strength, and the armies of Moesia, Pannonia, and Illyricum soon
declared for him, and made him the de facto master of half of the Roman
world.
While Vespasian himself
was in Egypt securing its grain supply,
his troops entered Italyfrom the
northeast under the leadership of Marcus Antonius
Primus. They defeated Vitellius's army (which had awaited him
in Mevania) at Bedriacum (or
Betriacum), sacked Cremona and advanced
on Rome. Vitellius hastily arranged a peace with Antonius, but the
Emperor's Praetorian Guard forced
him to retain his seat. After furious fighting, Antonius' army entered Rome. In
the resulting confusion, the Capitol was destroyed by fire and
Vespasian's brother Sabinus was killed by a mob.
On receiving the tidings
of his rival's defeat and death at Alexandria, the new emperor at once forwarded
supplies of urgently-needed grain to Rome, along with an edict assuring he
would reverse the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason. While in Egypt, he visited the Temple
of Serapis where he reportedly experienced
a vision. Later,
he was confronted by two labourers, who were convinced that he possessed a
divine power that could work miracles.
Emperor (69–79)[edit]
Aftermath
of the civil war[edit]
Vespasian was declared
emperor by the Senate while he was in Egypt in December of 69; the Egyptians
had declared him emperor in June. In the short-term, administration of the
empire was given to Mucianus who was
aided by Vespasian's son, Domitian. Mucianus
started off Vespasian's rule with tax reform that was to restore the empire's
finances. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to
press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible.[15]
Vespasian and Mucianus
renewed old taxes and instituted new ones, increased the tribute of the
provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. The Latin proverb "Pecunia non olet" ("Money does not
stink") may have been created when he had introduced a urine tax on public toilets.
In early 70 Vespasian was
still in Egypt, the source of Rome's grain supply, and had not yet left for
Rome. According to Tacitus, his trip was
delayed due to bad weather.[16] Modern historians
theorize that Vespasian had been and was continuing to consolidate support from
the Egyptians before departing.[17] Stories of a divine
Vespasian healing people circulated in Egypt.[18] During this period,
protests erupted in Alexandria over his new tax policies and grain shipments
were held up. Vespasian eventually restored order and grain shipments to Rome
resumed.[15]
In addition to the
uprising in Egypt, unrest and civil war continued in the rest of the empire in
70. Judea had been rebelling since 66.
Vespasian's son, Titus, finally subdued the
rebellion with the capture of Jerusalem and destruction of the Jewish Temple in 70. According to Eusebius, Vespasian then ordered all
descendants of the royal line of David to
be hunted down, causing the Jews to be persecuted from province to province.
Several modern historians have suggested that Vespasian, already having been
told by Josephus that he was prophesied to become emperor whilst in Judaea, was
probably reacting to other widely known Messianic prophecies circulating at the
time, to suppress any rival claimants arising from that dynasty.[19]
In January of the same
year, an uprising occurred in Gaul and Germany, known
as the second Batavian Rebellion.
This rebellion was headed by Gaius Julius Civilis and Julius Sabinus. Sabinus, claiming he was
descended from Julius Caesar,
declared himself Emperor of Gaul. The rebellion defeated and absorbed two Roman
legions before it was suppressed by Vespasian's brother-in-law, Quintus
Petillius Cerialis, by the end of 70.
Arrival
in Rome and gathering support[edit]
In mid-70, Vespasian
first came to Rome, dating his tribunician years
from 1 July 69.[5] Vespasian
immediately embarked on a series of efforts to stay in power and prevent future
revolts. He offered gifts to many in the military and much of the public.[20]Soldiers loyal to
Vitellius were dismissed or punished.[21] Vespasian also
restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and
adding his allies.[22] Regional autonomy
of Greek provinces was repealed.[23] Additionally,
Vespasian made significant attempts to control public perception of his rule.
Relationship
with barbarians[edit]
In general Vespasian
enjoyed friendly relations with nearby barbarians, especially the Germanic and
Dacian tribes, many of whom supported him politically in his bid for emperor.[24]
Propaganda
campaign[edit]
Roman aureus depicting Vespasian as Emperor.
The reverse shows the goddess Fortuna.
We know from Suetonius
that the "unexpected and still quite new emperor was lacking auctoritas [English: backing,
support] and a certain maiestas [English: majesty]".[25] Many modern
historians note the increased amount of propaganda that appeared during
Vespasian's reign.[26] Stories of a
supernatural emperor who was destined to rule circulated in the empire.[11] Nearly one-third of
all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military victory or peace.[27] The word vindex was
removed from coins so as not to remind the public of rebellious Vindex. Construction projects bore
inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning previous emperors.[28] A temple of peace
was constructed in the forum as well.[22] Vespasian approved
histories written under his reign, ensuring biases against him were removed.[29]
Vespasian also gave
financial rewards to writers.[30] The ancient
historians who lived through the period such as Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak suspiciously well
of Vespasian while condemning the emperors who came before him.[31] Tacitus admits that
his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron
and savior, and Pliny dedicated his Natural Histories to
Vespasian's son, Titus.[32]
Those who spoke against
Vespasian were punished. A number of Stoic philosophers were accused of
corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and were expelled from Rome.[33] Helvidius Priscus, a pro-Republic philosopher,
was executed for his teachings.[34] Numerous other
philosophers and writers have had their works seized, destroyed and denounced
for being deemed too critical of Vespasian's reign, some even posthumously.[34]
Construction
and conspiracies[edit]
Relief depicting an animal sacrifice, from an altar of the Temple
of Vespasianus in Pompeii
Between 71 and 79, much
of Vespasian's reign is a mystery. Historians report that Vespasian ordered the
construction of several buildings in Rome. Additionally, he survived several
conspiracies against him.
Vespasian helped rebuild
Rome after the civil war. He added the temple of Peace and the temple to the
Deified Claudius.[22] In 75, he erected a
colossal statue of Apollo, begun under Nero,
and he dedicated a stage of the theater of Marcellus. He also began
construction of the Colosseum, using funds
from the spoils of the Jewish Temple after the Siege of Jerusalem.[35]
Suetonius claims that Vespasian was met with
"constant conspiracies" against him.[36]Only one conspiracy is
known specifically, though. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus and Aulus Caecina Alienus attempted
to kill Vespasian. Why these men turned against Vespasian is not known.
Roman
expansion in Britain (78–79)[edit]
In 78, Agricola was
sent to Britain, and both
extended and consolidated the Roman dominion in that province, pushing his way
into what is now Scotland.
Death
(79)[edit]
In his ninth consulship
Vespasian had a slight illness in Campania and, returning at once to Rome, he
left for Aquae Cutiliae and
the country around Reate, where he spent every
summer; however, his illness worsened and he developed severe diarrhea.
Feeling death coming on,
he reportedly called out "Vae, puto deus fio." ("Dear me, I
think I'm becoming a god").[37] Then, according
to Suetonius' The Twelve Caesars:
In his ninth consulship
he had a slight illness in Campania, and returning at once to the city, he left
for Cutiliaeº and the country about Reate, where he spent the summer every
year. There, in addition to an increase in his illness, having contracted a bowel
complaint by too free use of the cold waters, he nevertheless continued to
perform his duties as emperor, even receiving embassies as he lay in bed. Taken
on a sudden with such an attack of diarrhoea that he all but swooned, he said:
"An emperor ought to die standing," and while he was struggling to
get on his feet, he died in the arms of those who tried to help him, on the
ninth day before the Kalends of July, at the age of sixty-nine years, seven
months and seven days..
— Suetonius,
Lives of the Twelve Caesars, "Life of Vespasian" §24[38]
He was succeeded by his
son Titus.
Legacy[edit]
Construction
of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum, was begun by Vespasian and finished
by his son Titus.
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Vespasian was known for
his wit and his amiable manner alongside his commanding personality and
military prowess. He could be liberal to impoverished Senators and equestrians
and to cities and towns desolated by natural calamity. He was especially generous
to men of letters and rhetors, several of whom he
pensioned with salaries of as much as 1,000 gold pieces a year. Quintilian is said to have been the first
public teacher who enjoyed this imperial favor. Pliny the Elder's work, the Natural History,
was written during Vespasian's reign, and dedicated to Vespasian's son Titus.[39]
Vespasian distrusted
philosophers in general. It was the talk of philosophers, who liked to glorify
the Republic, that
provoked Vespasian into reviving the obsolete penal laws against this
profession as a precautionary measure. Only one, Helvidius Priscus, was put to death after he
had repeatedly affronted the Emperor by studied insults which Vespasian had
initially tried to ignore.[40]The philosopher Demetrius
was banished to an island and when Vespasian heard Demetrius was still
criticizing him, he sent the exiled philosopher the message: "You are
doing everything to force me to kill you, but I do not slay a barking
dog."[41]
Vespasian was indeed
noted for mildness when dealing with political opposition. According to
Suetonius, he "bore the frank language of his friends, the quips of
pleaders, and the impudence of the philosophers with the greatest
patience". Although Licinius Mucianus, a man of questionable reputation as
being the receiver in homosexual sex,
treated the Emperor with scant respect, Vespasian never criticised him publicly
but privately uttered the words: "I, at least, am a man."[42] He was also noted
for his benefactions to the people. Much money was spent on public works and
the restoration and beautification of Rome: the Temple of Peace, a new forum, the public baths[citation needed] and the great show
piece, the Colosseum.[43]
Vespasian debased
the denarius during his reign, reducing the
silver purity from 93.5% to 90% – the silver weight dropping from
2.97 grams to 2.87 grams.[44]
In modern Romance languages, urinals are still named
after him (for example, vespasiano in Italian, and vespasienne in
French[45]), probably in reference
to a tax he placed on urine collection (useful due to its ammoniac content;
see Pay toilet).
Portraits[edit]
Portrait bust of Vespasian wearing
the civic crown, Palazzo Massimo, Rome
·
Portrait bust of Vespasian from Ostia, 69–79 AD, Palazzo Massimo
alle Terme, Rome
Bust of Vespasian, Pushkin Museum, Moscow
Bust of Vespasian, c. 80 AD, Farnese Collection, Naples
National Archaeological Museum
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
1. ^ Classical Latin spelling and reconstructed
Classical Latin pronunciation:
TITVS FLAVIVS CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVGVSTVS
IPA: [ˈtɪ.tʊs ˈflaː.wi.ʊs
ˈkae̯.sar wɛs.pa.siˈaː.nʊs
au̯ˈgʊs.tʊs]
References[edit]
1. ^ Levick, Vespasian, xxi
& 4
2. ^ Levick, Vespasian, 16.
3. ^ Levick, Vespasian, 29–38.
4. ^ Levick, Vespasian, 43.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b c ODCW, Vespasian (2007).
6. ^ Suetonius, Vesp. 2
7. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Morgan
(2006), 170–3
8. ^ Suetonius, Vesp. 3
9. ^ Jump up to:a b c Levick, Vespasian.
10. ^ A History of Britain, Richard Dargie
(2007), p. 20
11. ^ Jump up to:a b Suetonius, Vesp. 4–5
12. ^ Josephus, War of the Jews 6.5.4
13. ^ Tacitus, Histories 5.13
14. ^ Cassius Dio Roman History LXV.1
15. ^ Jump up to:a b Cassius
Dio, Roman History, LXV.2
16. ^ Tacitus, Histories IV
17. ^ Sullivan, Phillip, "A Note on
Flavian Accession", The Classical Journal, 1953, p. 67-70
18. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXV.8-9
19. ^ e.g., Paul Barnett, Jesus
& the Rise of Early Christianity p. 31; 1911 Encyclopædia
Britannica, "JEWS".
20. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.10
21. ^ Suetonius, Vesp. 8
22. ^ Jump up to:a b c Suetonius, The
Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vespasian 9
23. ^ Suetonius, Vesp. 8;
Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius 5.41
24. ^ McLynn, Frank
(2010). Marcus Aurelius: A Life. Da Capo Press. p. 314. ISBN 9780306819162.
25. ^ Suet., Vesp. 7.2.
26. ^ M. P. Charleswroth,
"Flaviana", Journal of Roman Studies 27 (1938) 54–62
27. ^ Jones, William "Some Thoughts on
the Propaganda of Vespasian and Domitian", The Classical Journal,
p. 251
28. ^ Aqueduct and roads dedication speak
of previous emperors' neglect, CIL vi, 1257(ILS 218)
and 931
29. ^ Josephus, Against Apion 9
30. ^ Suetonius, Vesp. 18
31. ^ "Otho, Vitellius, and the
Propaganda of Vespasian", The Classical Journal (1965),
p. 267-269
32. ^ Tacitus, Histories I.1;
Josephus, The Life of Flavius Josephus72; Pliny the Elder, Natural
Histories, preface.
33. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.12
34. ^ Jump up to:a b Cassius
Dio, Roman History LXVI.13
35. ^ ALFÖLDY, GÉZA (1995). "Eine
Bauinschrift Aus Dem Colosseum". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und
Epigraphik. 109: 195–226.
36. ^ Suetonius, Vesp. 25
37. ^ Suetonius, Life of Vespasian,
23:4
38. ^ "C. Suetonius Tranquillus, Divus Vespasianus,
chapter 24". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 29
September 2017.
40. ^ Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve
Caesars, Vespasian 15
41. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book XVI,
13
42. ^ Suetonius, Vesp. 13
43. ^ Gunderson 2003: 640
44. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 1 November 2008.
Retrieved 4 December 2018.
45. ^ ICI.Radio-Canada.ca, Zone
Politique -. "Plus de 3 M$ pour une douzaine de
" vespasiennes " modernes". Radio-Canada.ca.
Retrieved 29 September 2017.
Sources[edit]
·
This article incorporates text
from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed.
(1911). "Vespasian" . Encyclopædia
Britannica. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University
Press.
Sources[edit]
Primary sources
·
Tacitus, Histories,
English translation
·
Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life
of Vespasian, Latin text with English translation
·
Cassius Dio, Roman History, Books 64, 65 and 66, Latin text with English translation
·
Flavius
Josephus, The War of the Jews, Books 2, 3 and 4,
English translation
Secondary sources
·
Lissner, I. (1958). "Power and Folly:
The Story of the Caesars". Jonathan Cape Ltd., London.
·
Courtney, H. (1999). Vespasian (Roman
Imperial Biographies), Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16618-7 (hbk). ISBN 0-415-33866-2(pbk.).
·
Morgan, G. (2006). 69 A. D. The Year
of the Four Emperors. London: OUP. pp. 170–173. ISBN 9780195124682.
·
Levick, B. (1999). Vespasian (Roman
Imperial Biographies). Oxford: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16618-8.
·
Roberts, J. (ed.) (2007). 'Vespasian' in Oxford Dictionary of the
Classical World (e-reference edition). Oxford University Press.
Further reading[edit]
·
Biography in De
Imperatoribus Romanis.
·
Entry
on Vespasian in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith
·
Private collection of coins minted by
Vespasian.
·
A. Simmons, The Cipherment of the Franks Casket.
Vespasian is depicted on the back side of the Franks Casket.
External links[edit]
·
Media related
to Vespasian at
Wikimedia Commons
Vespasian Born: 17 November CE
9 Died: 23 June CE 79 |
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Political offices |
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Preceded by |
Roman Emperor |
Succeeded by |
Preceded by |
Consul of
the Roman Empire |
Succeeded by |
Preceded by |
Consul of
the Roman Empire |
Succeeded by |
Preceded by |
Consul of
the Roman Empire |
show ·
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e |
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·
BNF: cb14480609t (data) ·
NKC: osd2013753637 ·
WorldCat Identities (via
VIAF): 96539514 |
·
Jews
and Judaism in the Roman Empire
·
Characters in works by Geoffrey of Monmouth
·
Flavii
·
People of the Year of the Four Emperors
·
People
of the First Jewish–Roman War
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