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For other uses, see Spartacus
(disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Spartocus or Sportacus.
Spartacus (Greek: Σπάρτακος Spártakos; Latin: Spartacus; c. 111–71 BC) was a Thracian gladiator who, along with the Gauls Crixus, Gannicus, Castus, and Oenomaus, was one of the escaped slave leaders in the Third Servile War, a major slave uprising against the Roman Republic. Little is known about Spartacus beyond the events of the war, and
surviving historical accounts are sometimes contradictory and may not always be
reliable. However, all sources agree that he was a former gladiator and an
accomplished military leader.
This rebellion,
interpreted by some as an example of oppressed people
fighting for their freedom against a slave-owning oligarchy, has provided
inspiration for many political thinkers, and has been featured in literature,
television, and film. Although this interpretation is not specifically
contradicted by classical historians, no historical account mentions that the
goal was to end slavery in the Republic.[1]
Contents
·
1Early life
·
2Enslavement and escape
·
3Third Servile War
·
4Objectives
·
5Legacy and recognition
o
5.1In communism
o
5.2In sports
o
5.3In Russia
o
5.4In Ukraine
o
5.5In Bulgaria
o
5.6In Serbia
o
5.7In Slovakia
o
5.8In other countries
·
6In popular culture
o
6.1Film
o
6.2Television
o
6.3Literature
o
6.4Music
o
6.5Video games
o
6.6Places
o
6.7Politics
·
7See also
·
8References
·
9Bibliography
o
9.1Classical authors
o
9.2Modern historiography
·
10External links
Balkan tribes,
including the Maedi("Maidoi", on map).
The Greek essayist Plutarch describes
Spartacus as "a Thracian of Nomadic stock",[2]in a possible
reference to the Maedi tribe.[3] Appian says he
was "a Thracian by birth, who had once served as
a soldier with the Romans, but had since been a prisoner and sold for a
gladiator".[4]
Florus described him as one "who, from a Thracian
mercenary, had become a Roman soldier, that had deserted and became enslaved,
and afterward, from consideration of his strength, a gladiator".[5] The authors refer to the Thracian tribe of the Maedi,[6][7][8]which occupied the area on the southwestern fringes
of Thrace, along its border with the Roman province of
Macedonia -
present day south-western Bulgaria.[9] Plutarch also writes that Spartacus' wife, a
prophetess of the Maedi tribe, was enslaved with him.
The name
Spartacus is otherwise manifested in the Black Sea region.
Kings of the Thracian dynasty of the Cimmerian Bosporus[10]and Pontus[11] are known
to have borne it, and a Thracian "Sparta" "Spardacus"[12] or "Sparadokos",[13] father
of Seuthes I of
the Odrysae, is also known.
The extent of the Roman Republic at 100 BC.
According to the
differing sources and their interpretation, Spartacus was a captive taken by
the legions.[14] Spartacus
was trained at the gladiatorial school (ludus)
near Capua belonging
to Lentulus Batiatus. He was a
heavyweight gladiator called a murmillo. These fighters
carried a large oblong shield (scutum), and used a
sword with a broad, straight blade (gladius), about 18
inches long.[15] In 73 BC,
Spartacus was among a group of gladiators plotting an escape.[16]
About 70[17] slaves
were part of the plot. Though few in number, they
seized kitchen utensils, fought their way free from the school, and seized
several wagons of gladiatorial weapons and armor.[16] The
escaped slaves defeated soldiers sent after them, plundered the region
surrounding Capua, recruited many other slaves into their ranks, and eventually
retired to a more defensible position on Mount Vesuvius.[18][19]
Once free, the
escaped gladiators chose Spartacus and two Gallic slaves—Crixusand Oenomaus—as their
leaders. Although Roman authors assumed that the escaped slaves were a
homogeneous group with Spartacus as their leader, they may have projected their
own hierarchical view of military leadership onto the spontaneous organization,
reducing other slave leaders to subordinate positions in their accounts.
Further information: Third Servile War
The response of
the Romans was hampered by the absence of the Roman legions, which were already
engaged in fighting a revolt in Spain and
the Third Mithridatic
War. Furthermore, the Romans considered the rebellion more of
a policing matter than a war. Rome dispatched militia under the command
of praetor Gaius Claudius Glaber, which besieged Spartacus and his
camp on Mount Vesuvius, hoping that starvation would force Spartacus to
surrender. They were surprised when Spartacus, who had made ropes from vines,
climbed down the cliff side of the volcano with his men and attacked the
unfortified Roman camp in the rear, killing most of them.[20]
The rebels also
defeated a second expedition, nearly capturing the praetor commander, killing
his lieutenants and seizing the military equipment.[21] With these
successes, more and more slaves flocked to the Spartacan
forces, as did "many of the herdsmenand shepherds of the
region", swelling their ranks to some 70,000.[22]
In these
altercations Spartacus proved to be an excellent tactician, suggesting
that he may have had previous military experience. Though the rebels
lacked military training, they displayed
a skillful use of available local materials and unusual tactics when facing the
disciplined Roman armies.[23] They spent
the winter of 73–72 BC training, arming and equipping their new recruits, and
expanding their raiding territory to include the towns of Nola, Nuceria, Thurii and Metapontum.[24] The
distance between these locations and the subsequent events indicate that the
slaves operated in two groups commanded by the remaining leaders Spartacus and Crixus.[citation needed]
In the spring of 72 BC, the rebels left their winter
encampments and began to move northward. At the same time, the Roman Senate,
alarmed by the defeat of the praetorian forces,
dispatched a pair of consular legions under the
command of Lucius Gellius Publicola and Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus.[25] The two
legions were initially successful—defeating a group of 30,000 rebels commanded
by Crixus near Mount
Garganus[26]—but then were
defeated by Spartacus. These defeats are depicted in divergent ways by the two
most comprehensive (extant) histories of the war by Appian and Plutarch.[27][28][29][30]
Alarmed at the
continued threat posed by the slaves, the Senate charged Marcus Licinius Crassus, the wealthiest
man in Rome and the only volunteer for the position,[31] with
ending the rebellion. Crassus was put in charge of eight legions, approximately
40,000 trained Roman soldiers,[32][not in citation given][33] which he
treated with harsh, even brutal, discipline, reviving the punishment of
unit decimation.[31] When
Spartacus and his followers, who for unclear reasons had retreated to the south
of Italy, moved
northward again in early 71 BC, Crassus deployed six of his legions on the
borders of the region and detached his legate Mummius with two legions to maneuver behind Spartacus.
Though ordered not to engage the rebels, Mummius
attacked at a seemingly opportune moment but was routed.[34] After
this, Crassus's legions were victorious in several engagements,
forcing Spartacus farther south through Lucania as Crassus gained the upper
hand. By the end of 71 BC, Spartacus was encamped in Rhegium
(Reggio Calabria), near
the Strait of Messina.
A modern
depiction of the fall of Spartacus.
According
to Plutarch, Spartacus made
a bargain with Cilician pirates to
transport him and some 2,000 of his men to Sicily, where he
intended to incite a slave revolt and gather reinforcements. However, he was
betrayed by the pirates, who took payment and then abandoned the rebels.[34] Minor
sources mention that there were some attempts at raft and shipbuilding by the
rebels as a means to escape, but that Crassus took unspecified measures to
ensure the rebels could not cross to Sicily, and their efforts were abandoned.[35]Spartacus's
forces then retreated toward Rhegium. Crassus's
legions followed and upon arrival built fortifications across the isthmus at Rhegium,[citation needed] despite
harassing raids from the rebels. The rebels were now under siege and cut off
from their supplies.[36]
At this time,
the legions of Pompey returned
from Hispania and were ordered by the Senate to head south to aid Crassus.[37] While
Crassus feared that Pompey's arrival would cost him the credit, Spartacus
unsuccessfully tried to reach an agreement with Crassus.[38] When
Crassus refused, a portion of Spartacus's forces fled toward the mountains west
of Petelia (modern Strongoli) in Bruttium, with Crassus's
legions in pursuit.[39]
When the legions
managed to catch a portion of the rebels separated from the main army,[40]discipline among
Spartacus's forces broke down as small groups independently attacked the
oncoming legions.[41] Spartacus
now turned his forces around and brought his entire strength to bear on the
legions in a last stand, in which the rebels were routed completely, with the
vast majority of them being killed on the battlefield.[42]
The final battle
that saw the assumed defeat of Spartacus in 71 BC took place on the present
territory of Senerchia on the
right bank of the river Sele in the area that
includes the border with Oliveto Citra up to those of
Calabritto, near the village of Quaglietta,
in High Sele Valley, which at that time was part of
Lucania. In this area, since 1899, there have been finds of armour
and swords of the Roman era.
Plutarch, Appian
and Florus all claim that Spartacus died during the
battle, but Appian also reports that his body was never found.[43] Six
thousand survivors of the revolt captured by the legions of Crassus
were crucified, lining
the Appian Way from Rome
to Capua.[44]
Crassus
crucified 6,000 of Spartacus's followers on the road between Rome and Capua. 1878 painting by Fyodor Bronnikov.
Classical
historians were divided as to the motives of Spartacus. None of Spartacus's
actions overtly suggest that he aimed at reforming Roman society or abolishing slavery.
Plutarch writes that Spartacus wished to escape north
into Cisalpine Gaul and disperse his men back to their homes.[45] If escaping the Italian peninsula was indeed his
goal, it is not clear why Spartacus turned south after defeating the legions
commanded by the consuls Lucius Publicola and Gnaeus Clodianus, which left his
force a clear passage over the Alps.
Appian and Florus write that he intended to march on Rome itself.[46] Appian also states that he later abandoned that
goal, which might have been no more than a reflection of Roman fears.
Based on the
events in late 73 BC and early 72 BC, which suggest independently operating
groups of escaped slaves[47] and a
statement by Plutarch, it appears that some of the escaped slaves preferred to
plunder Italy, rather than escape over the Alps.[45][clarification needed]
Toussaint Louverture, a leader of the slave revolt that led to the
independence of Haiti, has been called the "Black Spartacus".[48][49]
Adam Weishaupt, founder of the Bavarian Illuminati, often referred to himself as Spartacus within written
correspondences.[50]
In communism
Viva Spartaco, Spartaco a Rosarno: graffiti connecting Spartaco with 2010 Rosarno
riots between locals and migrant farm
workers
In modern times, Spartacus became an icon for communists and
socialists. Karl Marxlisted Spartacus as one of his heroes and described him as
"the most splendid fellow in the whole of ancient history" and a
"great general (though no Garibaldi), noble
character, real representative of the ancient proletariat".[51] Spartacus
has been a great inspiration to left-wing revolutionaries, most notably the
German Spartacus League (1915–18),
a forerunner of the Communist Party of
Germany.[52] A January
1919 uprising by communists in Germany was called the Spartacist uprising.[49] Spartacus Books, one of the
longest running collectively-run leftist bookstores in North America, is also
named in his honour.
In sports
Several sports
clubs around the world, in particular the former Soviet and the Communist bloc, were named after the Roman gladiator. Spartak's name was
chosen in numerous football sides in Slavic Europe.
In Russia
·
FC Spartak Moscow, a football club
·
FC Spartak Kostroma, a football club
·
PFC Spartak Nalchik, a football club
·
FC Spartak Vladikavkaz, a football club
·
HC Spartak Moscow, an ice hockey team
·
Spartak Saint Petersburg, a basketball team
·
Spartak Tennis Club, a tennis training facility
·
WBC Spartak Moscow, a women's basketball team
In Ukraine
·
FC Spartak Sumy, a football club
·
Spartak, a village in Donetsk Oblast
·
Spartak Ivano-Frankivsk, a football team
·
Zakarpattia Uzhhorod, a football club, formerly known as Spartak Uzhhorod
·
Spartak Lviv
·
Spartak Kyiv
·
Spartak Odesa, a football team competed in the 1941 Soviet war
league
·
Spartak Kharkiv, a football team
competed in the 1941 Soviet war
league
In Bulgaria
·
PFC Spartak Varna, a football team
·
PFC Spartak Pleven, a football team
·
FC Spartak Plovdiv, a football team
·
Spartak Sofia, a former football team
In Serbia
·
FK Spartak Subotica, a football team
·
FK Radnički
(disambiguation),
several teams
In Slovakia
·
FC Spartak Trnava, a football team
·
TJ Spartak Myjava, a football team
·
FK Spartak Vráble, a football team
·
FK Spartak Bánovce nad Bebravou, a football team
In other countries
·
Spartak Stadium
(disambiguation)
·
Barnt Green Spartak F.C., an English football team
·
Spartak (Cape Verde), a Cape Verdean football team
·
FC Spartak Semey, a Kazakh football team
Spartacus's name
was also used in athletics in the Soviet Union and communist states of
Central and Eastern Europe. The Spartakiad was
a Soviet bloc version of
the Olympic games.[53] This name
was also used for the mass gymnastics
exhibition held every five years in Czechoslovakia.
Spartacus, marble sculpture by Denis Foyatier (1830), Louvre Museum
Film
·
The film Spartacus (1960),
which was executive-produced by and starred Kirk Douglas, was based
on Howard Fast's novel Spartacus and
directed by Stanley Kubrick. The phrase
"I'm Spartacus!" from this film has been referenced in a number of
other films, television programs, and commercials.
Television
·
In 2004, Fast's novel was adapted as a made-for-TV movie by
the USA Network, with Goran Višnjić in the
main role.
·
One episode of 2007–2008 BBC's
docudrama Heroes and Villains features
Spartacus.
·
The television series Spartacus, starring Andy Whitfield, and
later Liam McIntyre, in the title
role, aired on the Starz premium
cable network from January 2010 to April 2013.[54][55]
·
The History Channel's Barbarians Rising (2016)
features the story of Spartacus in its third episode entitled
"Rebellion".
·
The anime series Fate/Apocrypha contains a
fictionalised version of Spartacus, who is summoned
into the present day during the Great Holy Grail War, to fight for the faction
of Red as a Berserker-class servant.
Literature
·
Howard Fast wrote the historical novel Spartacus, the basis of the 1960 film of the same name.
·
Arthur Koestler wrote a novel about Spartacus called The Gladiators.
·
The Scottish writer Lewis Grassic
Gibbon wrote a novel Spartacus.
·
The Italian writer Raffaello Giovagnoli wrote his
historical novel, Spartacus, in 1874. His novel has been
subsequently translated and published in many European countries.
·
The German writer Bertolt Brecht wrote Spartacus,
his second play, before 1920. It was later renamed Drums in the Night.
·
The Latvian writer Andrejs Upīts in 1943
wrote the play Spartacus.
·
The Polish writer Halina Rudnicka [pl] in 1951
wrote a novel Uczniowie Spartakusa (Spartacus' disciples).
·
The Reverend Elijah Kellogg's Spartacus to the
Gladiators at Capua has been used effectively by
school pupils to practice their oratory skills for ages.
·
Amal Donkol, the Egyptian modern poet wrote "The Last Words of
Spartacus".
·
Max Gallo wrote the novel Les Romains.Spartacus.
La Revolte des Esclaves,
Librairie Artheme Fayard, 2006.
The statue of
Spartacus in Sandanski, Bulgaria
Music
·
"Love Theme From Spartacus"
was a hit for composer Alex North and has
become a jazz standard.
·
Spartacus (1954, first staged in 1956) is a ballet, with a
score by Soviet Armenian composer Aram Khachaturian.
·
In 1975, Triumvirat reached
the apex of their commercial success with the release of Spartacus, a classic
"prog rock" album.
·
Australian composer Carl Vine wrote a
short piano piece entitled "Spartacus", from Red Blues.
·
Jeff Wayne released his musical retelling, Jeff Wayne's Musical
Version of Spartacus, in
1992.
Video games
·
In Age of Empires: Rise of
Rome Expansion IV Enemies of Rome, 3: Spartacus the
campaign has the player fighting against Spartacus' army.
·
In Spartacus Legends, Spartacus
appears as an endgame boss.
·
In "Gods of Rome",
Spartacus is a playable common character.
Places
·
Spartacus Peak on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands.
Politics
·
During a controversy over release of documents at the U.S.
Senate's confirmation hearing for Judge Brett Kavanaugh, Senator Cory Booker said,
"This is about the closest I'll probably ever have in my life to an 'I am
Spartacus' moment."[56]
·
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Viriathus
1.
^ Historian Barry Strauss On His New Book The Spartacus War (Interview). Simon & Schuster. 2009.
2.
^ Plutarch, Crassus 8
3.
^ Nic Fields
(2009). Spartacus and the Slave
War 73-71 BC: A Gladiator Rebels Against Rome. Osprey Publishing. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-84603-353-7.
4.
^ Appian, Civil Wars 1.116
5.
^ Florus, Epitome of Roman History 2.8.8
6.
^ Sallust (1994). The histories. Vol.2, Books
iii-v. Translated by McGushin, Patrick. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198721439.
7.
^ Annuaire de l'Université de Sofia, Faculté d'histoire, Volume 77, Issue 2,
1985, p. 122. Books.google.com. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
8.
^ Strauss 2009, p. 31
9.
^ John Boardman, I. E. S. Edwards, N. G. L. Hammond
and E. Sollberger, eds. (1982). The Cambridge
Ancient History (2 ed.). Cambridge University
Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521224963. ISBN 0521224969.
10.
^ Diodorus Siculus, Historical Library Book 12
11.
^ Diodorus Siculus, Historical Library Book 16
12.
^ Theucidides, History of the Peloponnesian War 2.101
13.
^ Tribes, Dynasts and
Kingdoms of Northern Greece: History and Numismatics
14.
^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116; Plutarch, Crassus, 8:2. Note: Spartacus' status as an auxilia is taken from the Loeb edition of Appian translated
by Horace White, which states "...who had once served as a soldier with
the Romans...". However, the translation by John
Carter in the Penguin Classics version reads: "...who had once fought
against the Romans and after being taken prisoner and sold...".
15.
^ The Spartacus War, Barry Strauss, p.11
16.
^ Jump up to:a b Plutarch, Crassus, 8:1–2; Appian, Civil
Wars, 1:116; Livy, Periochae, 95:2; Florus, Epitome, 2.8. Plutarch
claims 78 escaped, Livy claims 74, Appian "about seventy", and Florus says "thirty or rather more men".
"Choppers and spits" is from Life of Crassus.
17.
^ However, according to Cicero (Ad Atticum
VI, ii, 8) at the beginning his followers were much less than 50.
18.
^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:1.
19.
^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116; Florus, Epitome, 2.8.
20.
^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:1–3; Frontinus, Stratagems, Book I, 5:20–22; Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116; Broughton, Magistrates of the Roman Republic,
p. 109.
21.
^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:4–5; Livy, Periochae , 95; Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116; Sallust, Histories, 3:64–67.
22.
^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:3; Appian, Civil War, 1:116.
23.
^ Frontinus, Stratagems, Book I, 5:20–22 and Book VII:6.
24.
^ Florus, Epitome, 2.8.
25.
^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116–117; Plutarch, Crassus 9:6; Sallust, Histories, 3:64–67.
26.
^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:117; Plutarch, Crassus 9:7; Livy, Periochae 96.
27.
^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:117.
28.
^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:7.
29.
^ "Spartacus and the
Slave Rebellion". Historynet.com. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
30.
^ Shaw, Brent D. (2001). Spartacus and the
servile wars: a brief history with documents. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-23703-0.
31.
^ Jump up to:a b Appian, Civil
Wars, 1:118.
32.
^ Plutarch, Crassus 10:1.
33.
^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:118; Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Antiquities, "Exercitus",
p.494.
34.
^ Jump up to:a b Plutarch, Crassus, 10:1–3.
35.
^ Florus, Epitome, 2.8; Cicero, Orations, "For Quintius, Sextus Roscius...", 5.2
36.
^ Plutarch, Crassus, 10:4–5.
37.
^ Contrast Plutarch, Crassus, 11:2 with Appian, Civil Wars, 1:119.
38.
^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120.
39.
^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120; Plutarch, Crassus, 10:6.
40.
^ Plutarch, Crassus, 11:3; Livy, Periochae, 97:1. Bradley, Slavery and Rebellion. p. 97;
Plutarch, Crassus, 11:4.
41.
^ Plutarch, Crassus, 11:5;.
42.
^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120; Plutarch, Crassus, 11:6–7; Livy, Periochae, 97.1.
43.
^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120; Florus, Epitome, 2.8.
44.
^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1.120.
45.
^ Jump up to:a b Plutarch Crassus, 9:5–6.
46.
^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:117; Florus, Epitome, 2.8.
47.
^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:7; Appian, Civil Wars, 1:117.
48.
^ Thomson, Ian (31 January 2004). "The black
Spartacus". The Guardian. Patrick Leigh Fermor hailed L'Ouverture as the
"black Spartacus" after the slave who challenged Rome...
49. ^ Jump up to:a b Diken, Bulent (2012). Revolt,
Revolution, Critique: The Paradox of Society. Routledge. p. 61. ISBN 9781134005642. ...like
the 'black Spartacus' Toussaint-Louverture, the
leader of the insurgent black slaves who escaped from plantations and defeated
the Napoleonic forces in Haiti in 1796-1804, or like the 'Spartacist' leaders
of the communist revolt in Germany in 1919.
50.
^ Douglas Reed (1 January 1978). The controversy of Zion. Dolphin Press. p. 139. Retrieved 21
July 2010.
51.
^ Croix, G. E. M. de Ste. (1989). The Class Struggle in the
Ancient Greek World. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. p. 25. ISBN 9780801495977.
52.
^ Fowkes, Ben
(2014). The German Left and the Weimar Republic: A Selection of Documents.
BRILL. p. 71. ISBN 9789004271081.
53.
^ Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd edition, volume 24 (part 1), p. 286, Moscow, Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya
publisher, 1976.
54.
^ "Spartacus —
Comic-Con 2009 - UGO.com". Tvblog.ugo.com. 29 June 2009. Archived from the original on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 24
February 2013.
55.
^ "AUSXIP Spartacus:
Blood and Sand TV Show Lucy Lawless Sam Raimi & Rob Tapert". Spartacus.ausxip.com. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
56.
^ Collinson, Stephen (September 6, 2018). "Booker Releases Kavanaugh Documents But GOP Insists They Were Already
Cleared". CNN. Archived from the original on September 13, 2018.
Retrieved September 13, 2018.
Classical authors
·
Appian. Civil Wars. Translated by J. Carter. (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1996)
·
Florus. Epitome of Roman History. (London: W.
Heinemann, 1947)
·
Orosius. The Seven Books of History Against
the Pagans. Translated by Roy J. Deferrari.
(Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1964).
·
Plutarch. Fall of the Roman Republic. Translated by R.
Warner. (London: Penguin Books, 1972), with special emphasis placed on
"The Life of Crassus" and "The Life of Pompey".
·
Sallust. Conspiracy of Catiline
and the War of Jugurtha. (London: Constable,
1924)
Modern historiography
·
Bradley, Keith R. Slavery and Rebellion in the
Roman World, 140 B.C.–70 B.C. Bloomington; Indianapolis: Indiana
University Press, 1989 (hardcover, ISBN 0-253-31259-0); 1998
(paperback, ISBN 0-253-21169-7).
[Chapter V] The Slave War of Spartacus, pp. 83–101.
·
Rubinsohn, Wolfgang Zeev. Spartacus' Uprising and Soviet Historical
Writing. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 1987 (paperback, ISBN 0-9511243-1-5).
·
Spartacus: Film and History, edited by Martin
M. Winkler. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2007 (hardcover, ISBN 1-4051-3180-2; paperback, ISBN 1-4051-3181-0).
·
Trow, M.J. Spartacus:
The Myth and the Man. Stroud, United Kingdom: Sutton Publishing, 2006
(hardcover, ISBN 0-7509-3907-9).
·
Genner, Michael.
"Spartakus. Eine Gegengeschichte des Altertums nach den Legenden der Zigeuner". Two volumes. Paperback. Trikont Verlag, München 1979/1980. Vol 1 ISBN 978-3-88167-053-1 Vol
2 ISBN 978-3-88167-060-9
·
Plamen Pavlov, Stanimir Dimitrov,Spartak —
sinyt na drenva Trakija/Spartacus —
the Son of ancient Thrace. Sofia, 2009, ISBN 978-954-378-024-2
·
Strauss, Barry (2009). The Spartacus War. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 1-4165-3205-6.
·
BBC Radio 4 - In
Our Time - Spartacus
·
Spartacus Article and full text of the Roman and Greek
sources.
·
Spartacus, movie starring Kirk
Douglas and Sir Peter Ustinov
·
Spartacus, television mini-series
starring Goran Višnjić and Alan Bates
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Starz Mini-Series airing
in 2010
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71 BC deaths
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This page was last edited on 4 December 2018, at
21:30 (UTC).
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